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Songhai Empire: The Rise & Fall of Africa’s Biggest Empire

The Songhai Empire was one of Africa's most powerful and wealthy states, influencing and shaping the West African world during the medieval era.

In the 15th and 16th centuries in West Africa , the dominant power was the Songhai Empire. Covering an area of around 310,000 square miles (800,000 kilometers2), the Songhai Empire, at its height, was about twice the size of California.

Centered around the Niger River, the Songhai Empire eclipsed the Mali Empire , which had been the regional power before. Songhai rose to great wealth and power and, for almost two centuries, controlled West Africa politically and economically.

Like many empires before and after, Songhai fell prey to hubris. Greed and the political machinations of human beings were the reasons for its downfall.

This is the story of one of Africa’s greatest empires.

Prelude to an Empire

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Receiving its name from the Songhai people who lived in a small area on the eastern banks of the Niger River, the Songhai Kingdom was born. Before the 10th century, the Songhai had already amalgamated several other peoples into their nation, with each group of people bringing their own special skills that would help the Songhai achieve new heights of success.

The Sorko people would bring with them knowledge of boatbuilding, while the Gao people specialized in hunting river animals such as hippopotami and crocodiles. The Do people were expert farmers and grew crops along the banks of the river. All these people were subjugated under Songhai rule when the Songhai people arrived on their horses. Through the centuries, all these people would coalesce into a single ethnolinguistic group.

All this happened around the time when the Ghana Empire was at its height to the west. Much trade with this Empire and the Songhai was done through the Songhai town of Gao, which became the center of the small Songhai Kingdom, and was named as the capital under the reign of Dia Kossoi. Eventually, Gao would grow to become a powerful trade hub, bringing extraordinary wealth to the Songhai people. Trade goods included dates, gold, ivory , kola nuts , leather, salt, and enslaved people.

The earliest history is descended from myth and legend. With an early tradition of history being passed down orally, it is difficult to determine what is true and what isn’t. A text from 1655 states that the first rulers were the Za dynasty, and the first Za ruler, Za Alayaman, came from Yemen and made his home in the town of Kukiya.

Knowledge of the second dynasty is just as enigmatic. Ancient tombstones in a cemetery near the village of Saney tell of these rulers having the title of Zuwa , but beyond that, not much is known of their rule.

Around 1300, the prosperity of Gao attracted the unwanted attention of the neighboring Mali Empire, which eclipsed the Ghana Empire and conquered Gao and the Songhai people, adding Gao to their expanding empire. Gao remained a part of the Mali Empire until around 1430. Before that, however, internal strife within the Mali Empire made it difficult to maintain control of all its provinces. Gao found itself being able to assert more independence as the decades passed.

Around 1360, an age of strife began in the Mali Empire. Mansa (ruler) Sulayman died, leaving a dispute over who should inherit the empire. The following Mansa, Mansa/Mari Jata II, drove the Empire into financial ruin. Mansa Musa II succeeded him and was left with an Empire crumbling into rebellion. He succeeded in quelling a Tuareg rebellion but was unable to stop the Kingdom of Gao from breaking away and re-asserting its independence in 1375.

The Rise of Songhai

Not only did Gao gain independence, but it began to assert itself militarily. Thus began the Sonni dynasty. Under Sonni Sulayman Dama, Gao began to seek conquest over Malian territory. Thus began the transition from the Kingdom of Gao into the Songhai Empire. In the 1460s and the 1470s, the Songhai Empire expanded rapidly, conquering neighboring territories and swallowing up what was left of the crumbling Mali Empire. This was done under the rule of Sonni Ali, who succeeded Sonni Sulayman Dama.

After defending against the Mossi Kingdoms to the south and conquering the Dogon people to the north, Sonni Ali annexed Timbuktu into the Songhai Empire by taking it from the Tuaregs, who had taken it from Mali. He then besieged the city of Jenné and, after a seven-year siege, managed to starve the city into submission, annexing it in 1473. Sonni Ali is believed to have ruled as a brutal tyrant, especially over the people of Timbuktu, until his death in 1492. He was succeeded by his son, Sonni Baru, whose reign was cut short shortly thereafter, and the throne was seized by Askia Muhammad I , who became known as Askia the Great.

Under the rule of Askia Muhammad, the military was reformed into a full-time professional army, and he effectively reorganized the structure of the empire. He was a devout Muslim who focused on opening mosques throughout the empire and recruiting Muslim scholars. Despite his religious zeal, he did not force religion on his subjects. He waged a Jihad against the Mossi Kingdoms to the south, but when he defeated them, he did not force them to convert to Islam . During his rule, he also completed the Hajj – the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Askia Muhammad was a military leader but was also a scholar. He was interested in astronomy, built observatories in his Empire, and hired astronomers. Under his rule, schools were built throughout the empire, and Sankore University in Timbuktu was expanded. He fostered trade and relations with the rest of the Muslim world, and many skilled workers emigrated from Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, and Muslim Spain to work in Songhai. These nations also exchanged ambassadors with Songhai, which empowered Askia Muhammad’s diplomatic weight.

Trade also flourished during this time. Canals were built, and trade networks expanded. The salt mines of Taghaza were brought under the control of the Songhai Empire, which significantly increased economic output. Agricultural methods were improved, and a system of weights and measures was introduced to facilitate trade.

The Niger River was essential for this trade, and much of the river was under the direct control of the Songhai Empire. Trade was done via camel trains in the north and across the Sahara . The industry was centered around a clan system, and one’s occupation was determined by which clan they were born into. Thus, each clan had a monopoly on its own industry and could influence the affairs in much the same way as guilds or unions.

At the bottom end of the social ladder were many thousands of enslaved people . Compared to other West African empires, Songhai relied heavily on their labor. Many of them were prisoners taken in battle, and most enslaved people worked in the agricultural industry, tilling the fields.

Above them were freemen, merchants, and traders. Depending on their expertise, immigrants could fall into any of these categories, and some even became enslaved.

The caste at the top were the noblemen and the descendants of the original Songhai people. Generally, the upper classes were expected to be Muslims , while the lower classes were often permitted to engage in their traditional religions.

Askia Muhammad I died in 1528, and the Songhai Empire continued to prosper under a succession of emperors over the next few decades.

The Decline & Collapse of the Songhai Empire

The period of peace and prosperity following Askia Muhammad’s death did not last forever. Political chaos and multiple civil wars rocked the Empire, creating a target for opportunistic enemies to exploit their weakened neighbor.

In 1591, the Moroccans, under Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi, invaded Songhai with the intention of conquest. Although the Songhai army consisted of professional soldiers and heavily outnumbered the invading force, the Moroccan army had arquebuses and several cannons, which they used to devastating effect. The Battle of Tondibi was an ignominious defeat for the Songhai Empire, and the Moroccan army proceeded to capture Timbuktu, Jenné, and Gao, causing the complete collapse of the empire.

The occupation was not easy for the Moroccans. Constant unrest and rebellion made governing the former Songhai Empire a nightmare, and the Moroccans eventually withdrew several decades later. Nevertheless, the Songhai Empire could not be revived, and it fractured into dozens of smaller kingdoms, some of which tried to carry on the Songhai traditions. These states would eventually fall to the French during the age of colonization, marking a final end to what remained of Songhai.

The Empire of Songhai was a powerful state in Africa that was hugely successful through various means, but notably through trade and diplomacy. It rose in power and collapsed spectacularly, much the same as empires have done all over the world. What is important about the Songhai Empire is that it challenges Western beliefs about the history of Africa and the capabilities of the African people.

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By Greg Beyer BA History & Linguistics, Journalism Diploma Greg specializes in African History. He holds a BA in History & Linguistics and a Journalism Diploma from the University of Cape Town. A former English teacher, he now excels in academic writing and pursues his passion for art through drawing and painting in his free time.

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Learning objective.

Explain the importance of Timbuktu after locating the Songhai Empire
The Songhai Empire was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591).
In the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in the 1430s Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty.
Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai’s neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was arguably the empire’s most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule, Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers.
The internal political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire allowed Morocco to invade Songhai. The main reason for the Moroccan invasion was to seize control of and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591.
The empire’s power was linked to economic trade; their government system granted authority to local chiefs as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy and tightly controlled labor division system.

A historical and still-inhabited city in the West African nation of Mali, situated 20 km (12 mi) north of the River Niger on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. In its Golden Age, the town’s numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network enabled an important book trade. Together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established the city as a scholarly center in Africa.

The ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south. Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.

Sonni dynasty

A dynasty of rulers of the Songhai Empire of medieval West Africa. The first ruler of the dynasty, Sunni Ali Kulun, probably reigned at the end of the fourteenth century. The last ruler, Sonni Baru, ruled until 1493 when the throne was usurped by the Askiya Muhammad I (known also as Askia the Great), the founder of the Askiya Dynasty.

A city in Mali located on the River Niger that for much of its history was an important commercial center involved in the trans-Saharan trade. Towards the end of the 13th century, it became part of the Mali Empire, but in the first half of the 15th century the town regained its independence and with the conquests of Sonni Ali (ruled 1464–1492) it became the capital of the Songhai Empire.

Introduction

The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591).

During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire. Mali conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century and the town would remain under Malian hegemony until the late 14th century. But as the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule.

Imperial Songhai

In the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in the 1430s, Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty. Around thirty years later, Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Mema, the Mali province west of Timbuktu, paving the way for his successor, Sonni Ali, to turn his country into one of the greatest empires sub-Saharan Africa has ever seen.

Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492. Like Songhai kings before him, he was a Muslim. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai’s neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was arguably the empire’s most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule, Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers. During his campaigns for expansion, Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs (Berber people with a traditionally nomadic pastoralist lifestyle) who had taken the city following the decline of Mali. However, Ali met stark resistance after setting his sights on the wealthy and renowned trading town of Djenné (also known as Jenne). After a persistent seven-year siege, he was able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved its citizens into surrender

Oral traditions present a conflicted image of Sonni Ali. On the one hand, the invasion of Timbuktu destroyed the city; Ali was described as an intolerant tyrant who conducted a repressive policy against the scholars of Timbuktu, especially those of the Sankore region who were associated with the Tuareg. On the other hand, his control of critical trade routes and cities brought great wealth. He is thus often presented as a powerful politician and great military commander and under his reign, Djenné and Timbuktu became great centers of learning.

Songhai Empire in 1500. Songhai rulers took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expanded Songhai rule. Under the rule of Sonni Ali, the Songhai surpassed the Malian Empire in area, wealth, and power, absorbing vast areas of the Mali Empire and reaching its greatest extent.

Following Ali’s reign, Askia the Great strengthened the Songhai Empire and made it the largest empire in West Africa’s history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria) and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the west. His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the creation of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire. Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and opened up his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world, but he was also tolerant of other religions and did not force Islam on his people. Among his great accomplishments was an interest in astronomical knowledge, which led to the development of astronomy and observatories in the capital.

Not only was he a patron of Islam but he was also gifted in administration and encouraging trade. He centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy that was responsible for, among other things, tax collection and the administration of justice. He also demanded that canals be built in order to enhance agriculture, which would eventually increase trade. More importantly than anything he did for trade was the introduction of weights and measures and the appointment of an inspector for each of Songhai’s important trading centers. During his reign Islam became more widely entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and the Saharan salt mines of Taghaza were brought within the boundaries of the empire.

However, as Askia the Great grew older, his power declined. In 1528, his sons revolted against him and declared Musa, one of Askia’s many sons, as king. Following Musa’s overthrow in 1531, Songhai’s empire went into decline. Multiple attempts at governing the empire by Askia’s sons and grandsons failed and between the political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire, Morocco invaded Songhai. The main reason for the Moroccan invasion of Songhai was to seize control and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The Songhai military, during Askia’s reign, consisted of full-time soliders, but the king never modernized his army. The Empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591.

The Organization of Songhai

At its peak, the Songhai city of Timbuktu became a thriving cultural and commercial center where Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. Economic trade existed throughout the empire due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were independent gold fields. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger.

The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided one’s occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. Historian James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans

Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Askia the Great. Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy.

Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today’s central bureaucrats.

Boundless World History. Authored by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-textbook/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

World History Edu

Songhai Empire – History, Accomplishments and Major Facts

by World History Edu · December 10, 2019

History and Facts about the Songhai Empire

The Songhai Empire was a massive, multicultural West African state that spanned between the 15th and 16th centuries CE. With an area primarily covering western Sahel, Songhai kings rose to prominence as the Mali Empire dwindled in the 15th century. From a centralized base in the capital Gao, famous and wise Songhai kings such as Sunni Ali and Mohammad I were phenomenal in turning the empire into a dominant force in trade, education, science and military.

At its greatest hour, and with wealth and fame surpassing that of the Mali Empire, the Songhai Empire was unquestionably the largest and mightiest empire to ever exist in sub-Saharan Africa. This pre-colonial empire stretched from territories along the Niger River to places such as present-day Mali, Chad, Niger, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Senegal and Gambia along the Atlantic coast.

Here, worldhistoryedu.com presents a comprehensive history and major facts about the Songhai Empire, the greatest empire to ever exist in sub-Saharan Africa.

Origins of the Songhai People

The origin of the Songhai tribe, also known as “Songhay”, can be traced to the eastern parts of the Niger River. Historians believe that the Songhai tribe had existed since the 9 th and 10 th centuries. Thus, they emerged during the reign of another old empire called Ghana Empire (6-13 th century CE).

As a tribe, the Songhai people were amalgamation different groups such as the Sorko and Gow people. It is commonly believed that the Sorko people first settled along the river banks of the Niger River. Their primary source of sustenance was fishing. They were expert boat makers as well.

The next major group that made the Niger River banks their home were the Gow people — a tribe primarily made up of hunters. Soon, similar and smaller groups of people, including tribes of farmers and animal breeders, moved into the area. As time went by, the settlers then began trading among themselves. This gave rise to the use of a common language, and with this came a common identity – the Songhai people.

Early Songhai Kings and Leaders

As a result of the growth in size and population of the Songhai people, kings and influential leaders emerged. This phenomenon started between the 10 th and 11 th centuries.

The first few rulers of the Songhai people were called Malik or Zuwa, which translates into “king”. Their queens were called Malikah or Melike . Many of their titles were derived from Arabic words.

According to accounts from the Tarikh al-Sudan (the History of the Sudan ), the Great Za was considered one of the earliest Songhai kings. King Za most likely hailed from the second early dynastic rulers of Songhai. Some historians have claimed that Za wasn’t even a Songhai by blood. It is believed that he was born in Yemen but later moved across Africa into the Songhai tribe. King Za turned out to be a very wise and powerful ruler. He was responsible for laying the foundations of what would become a colossal empire centuries later.

Some influential, early Songhai kings and tribe leaders also came from the Sanhaja tribes, commonly called the Tuareg. This tribe were predominantly a camel-riding group that crisscrossed and knew the Sahara Desert like it was the back of their hands. Over time, they made camps and settlements along the Niger River. It is likely that some of them went on to rule the early Songhai people.

All in all, the diverse groups and culture that settled along the Niger River bend helped foster a strong Songhai tribe. They also benefited from trading with North African tribes. Trading hubs and spots began to spring up along the Niger River. The most traded goods back then would certainly have been gold, kola nuts, dates, leather, salt and slaves. That’s right, slaves! Long before the pre-colonial Europeans and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, slave trade was not uncommon in Africa.

The City of Gao

The most famous Songhai trading hubs was in the city of Gao. Such was Gao’s importance that the city would eventually become the capital city of the Songhai Empire. Gao leaders profited immensely from goods that came all over Africa.

There were frequent oral tales about the splendid, vast number of goods in Gao. To Arabic scholars and traders, Gao was known as Kawkaw or Kuku . And according to a famous 9 th century Arabic scholar, Al-Yaqubi, Gao had a very powerful king by name Al-Kawkaw. Yaqubi stated that several chiefs and kings from far and wide came to Gao in order to pay homage to Gao kings.

Gao’s prosperity and popularity were just some of the reasons why the Mali Empire drooled over it during the late 13 th century. Eventually, Gao and large parts of the Songhai tribe along the Niger bend were brought under the sphere of the Mali Empire. Malian rulers such as Mansa Musa and Mansa Sulayman were swift to quench any Songhai uprising instigated by the old rulers of Gao or say the Tuareg camel riders.

As a result of weak political leadership and years of civil wars, Mali Empire experienced difficulties stamping its authority in Gao. The city therefore fell back into the hands of the Songhai people. The Malians left Gao as a slightly autonomous region; perhaps the Songhai leaders paid large sums of tributes to keep Mali kings in Timbuktu away from their lands.

Rise of the Songhai Empire

Starting from the relatively autonomous regions in Gao, the Songhai people rose into prominence as the Mali Empire disintegrated around the 15th century CE.

The fall of Mali Empire was further hastened by frequent attacks carried out by Songhai-affiliated Tuareg tribes on Mali Empire trading routes. These groups were simply thorns in the flesh of the Mali Empire from the early 15 th century CE onward.

The decline of Mali Empire allowed Songhai kings to seamlessly occupy the power vacuum created in major cities such as Timbuktu and Djenné (Jenne).

Songhai Empire during the reign of Sunni Ali

Leading the Songhai people was Sunni Ali, an influential leader from the Manay tribe. Also known as Sunni Ali Ber, Sunni Ali was initially a paid mercenary on the books of the Malian rulers in Timbuktu. After dutifully quelling invasions and incursions from Tuareg rebels on Timbuktu, Sunni Ali turned his sword against his employers.

Sunni Ali is generally regarded as the first real king of the Songhai Empire. He was a visionary who dreamed of expanding his empire across the length and breadth of the Atlantic coast line in West Africa. He worked extremely hard to realize majority of the goals that he set.

Sunni Ali the Great was also responsible for revolutionizing the army, an army which could boast of armored cavalry and several fleets of naval boats. During his reign, the Songhai army no longer went in for petty raids and incursions; they engaged in several wars in order to gain large areas all the way into some parts of North Africa.

By the time Sunni Ali had passed away in 1492, thus after a 28-year reign, the Songhai Empire were firmly in control of vast areas previously ruled by the Mali Empire. Legend has it that Sunni Ali was a gifted sorcerer, and it was his magical powers that struck the most fear in the hearts of his enemies. It is for this reason why he was commonly referred to as “Sunni the Merciless”.

However, for opponents that were willing to submit to his rule, Sunni Ali was kind and gentle with them, allowing the conquered to part of his Songhai Empire and army. Sunni Ali’s legacy lies in the fact that he was able to bring under his control virtually every trading post along the Niger River. His reign, as well as the ones in the Sonnni Dynasty, saw Songhai people rise to real prominence in the arts and science.

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Songhai empire under askia muhammad the great.

After the death of Sunni Ali in c. 1492, Sonni Baru succeeded to the throne. Baru’s reign was an unmemorable one since he stayed on the throne for just over a year.

After Sonni Baru, Muhammad I was crowned king of Songhai Empire. The emperor was also commonly called Askia the Great.

Born, Abu Bakr Ture, Muhammad I was not even a member of the royal family. It has been said that he was not a Songhai, instead, he came from the Soninke tribe. Therefore, his rise to throne came a bit fortuitously.

Regardless of his questionable background, Askia the Great lived up to his title. His reign, which lasted from 1493 to 1528, saw him continue in the footsteps of Sunni Ali. He increased Songhai’s army strength by several folds. As a result of this, the Songhai Empire successfully expanded in all directions. He made sure that the empire had a standing army that was well trained and well-equipped. He even set up several separate ministries to handle trade, education and the military.

Aside from his military conquests, Askia was very much devoted to Islam. He was considered a very wise and tolerant Muslim ruler who allowed Islam to flourish in a very peaceful and nonthreatening way. By so doing, people of different faiths came to love the ruler.

Also, Askia the Great invested heavily in over 150 schools, Islamic learning centers, and mosques. Scholars in all fields across Arabia and other part of sub-Saharan African flocked into Askia the Great’s Songhai Empire. The king was very fascinated with subjects such as mathematics, astronomy and Islamic studies.

Similar to famous Mali Emperor Mansa Musa , Askia the Great was lavishly generous with his wealth. On his way to Mecca (for Hajj), he dashed out several gifts, mostly gold, to the people.

In short, you could say that Askia the Great tried as much as possible to emulate the liberal principles that Mansa Musa implemented during his reign. Never once did Askia suppress the religious beliefs of the people that he vanquished. This was what made him famous across the kingdom. Under Askia’s reign, trade, agriculture and education flourished in the empire.

Askia the Great’s successors tried their hardest to keep his good works running smoothly however; many of them failed miserably. This was partly due to brutal periods of civil wars and feuds over the throne. Starting around the late 16 th century, the Songhai Empire gradually disintegrated. The vast areas that famous kings like Sunni Ali, Askia the Great and Askia Daoud conquered were up for the taking by the Moroccan Empire.

How Songhai Empire Fell

Some of the notable rulers include Sunni Ali Ber, Askia Muhammad (Askia the Great), Askia Musa, Askia Daoud, and Askia Ishaq II.

Songhai Empire’s decline did not necessarily start from outside, it came from within, right in the court yards of Askia the Great.

In 1528, the aging and frail Askia the Great was cowardly dethroned by his own children. The coup plotters could not even wait for their father to die. They rallied around one of Askia’s sons, Musa. With very little resistance, Musa was crowned Askia Musa, king of the Songhai Empire. However, Askia Musa’s reign was short-lived as he was in turn overthrown by some of his older siblings and cousins. The ensuing power struggle plunged the entire kingdom into a period of instability. The Songhai Empire’s glory days were far behind it by this time.

The Moroccans up north capitalized on the chaos and civil wars and brought the Songhai people under their control. Years and years of political strife had taken a huge toll on a once formidable Songhai army. And although the Songhai army had relatively higher number soldiers (about 40,000) than the Moroccans, the Moroccan leader, Ahmad al-Mansur al-Dhahabi (also known as ‘the Golden Conqueror’), easily brushed them aside with a well-oiled army of about 4,000 men. The Songhai Empire capitulated in the late 16 th century.

Key Facts about the Songhai Empire

Aside from the fact that the Songhai Empire was relatively weak politically, the army was poorly trained and equipped during the dying years of the empire. They did have the numbers; they had about 35,000 infantry men and 10,000 cavalry, however, many of those soldiers fell to the swords of the Moroccans in 1590.
At its zenith, the Songhai Empire was drawing in several scholars from all over the world, including Arab, Jewish, Spanish, and Italians. The cities of Timbuktu and Gao were vibrant trading and cultural hubs. The most famous of these Songhai scholars were Mahmud Kati and Abd al-Sadi. The popular 16th century book, Tarikh al-Sudan (the “History of the Suda”) was authored by Abd al-Sadi. The book contains a very comprehensive history of the Songhai Empire and rulers.
Following in the footsteps of the learned Mali Empire rulers, the Songhai Empire made sure that learning institutions and universities were well stocked with books in all sorts of disciplines. For example, the university at Timbuktu was a very famous place where scholars from all over the kingdom went to share ideas.
The Songhai Empire grew extremely large to a point where it occupied about 1.4 million square miles. To put that into perspective, the Songhai Empire, at its peak, was about two times as large as present-day France. The Songhai Empire spanned about 8 present-day West African countries: Mali, Chad, Niger, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, and Gambia along the Atlantic coast.
Some Songhai Kings went as far into present-day Cameroon, a central African nation.
Gold and salt were the two major commodities that fueled Songhai Empire’s economy. The slave trade economy was also very much vibrant.
One interesting thing about the Songhai Empire was that the society was divided into classes of Muslims – predominantly the upper class living in the urban areas – and the lower class (predominantly farmers) that stuck to African traditional beliefs and pagan worship.
Songhai Empire under Askia the Great (Muhammad I) followed the Sharia law – a set of rules that were in accordance with the Qur’an. Askia appointed Qadis – Islamic magistrates and judges – in several big cities such as Timbuktu, Djenné and Gao. The jurists on legal cases were typically from the academic institutions and Islamic schools.
Emperor Askia Ishaq II was the last major emperor to seat on the throne. In 1590, Ishaq’s ill trained and ill-equipped army were vanquished by the Moroccans. The salt-rich city of Taghaza was plundered by the Moroccans. Shortly after that, they made their way deep into the heart of Timbuktu and Djenné. The Songhai Empire never recovered from the attack. The empire disintegrated into several tribes and small and powerless kingdoms.

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Frequently Asked Questions about the Songhai Empire

The Songhai Empire, one of West Africa’s most influential pre-colonial empires, was ruled by a number of notable leaders.

Here are some of the most asked questions about the Songhai Empire:

Where was the Songhai Empire located?

The Songhai Empire was located in West Africa. It covered areas of present-day Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal, with its capital at Gao.

When did the Songhai Empire exist?

The Songhai Empire began its rise in the 15th century and reached its peak during the late 15th and 16th centuries. It declined after the late 16th century, especially following the Battle of Tondibi in 1591.

What led to the rise of the Songhai Empire?

The decline of the Mali Empire opened the door for Songhai to emerge as a dominant power. Leaders like Sunni Ali Ber and Askia Muhammad expanded its territories through military conquests and established strong administrative structures.

What was the religion of the Songhai Empire?

While traditional African religions were practiced initially, Islam became the dominant religion, especially during and after the reign of Askia Muhammad. The empire became a center for Islamic learning and culture.

How did the Songhai Empire come to an end?

The empire began to face internal divisions and external threats, particularly from the Moroccans. The Battle of Tondibi in 1591 against Moroccan forces marked the beginning of its decline, leading to its eventual disintegration.

Were the Songhai people traders?

Yes, the Songhai Empire was known for its involvement in the trans-Saharan trade. Major commodities included gold, salt, and slaves. Cities like Timbuktu became vital trade and learning centers.

What was the significance of Timbuktu in the Songhai Empire?

Timbuktu was a major city of trade, scholarship, and culture. It housed the famous Sankore University and was a center of Islamic learning.

Who were some of the major rulers of the Songhai Empire?

Sunni Ali Ber (r. 1464-1492): Sunni Ali Ber, also simply known as Sunni Ali, was the first king of the Sunni dynasty. He embarked on many military campaigns, leading to the rapid expansion of the empire. His reign was marked by the conquest of key cities, such as Timbuktu and Djenné, which became vital to the Songhai Empire.
Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great) (r. 1493-1528): After Sunni Ali’s death, his general, Askia Muhammad (previously known as Muhammad Ture), overthrew Sunni Ali’s son to become the ruler. He is credited with organizing the Songhai Empire’s administrative and legal systems. Askia Muhammad also undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, which solidified his commitment to Islam and bolstered the Islamic education and institutions within the empire. He expanded the empire further and made it the largest in West Africa’s history.
Askia Musa (r. 1529-1531): He succeeded Askia Muhammad I and was the second ruler from the Askia dynasty. His reign was short-lived, characterized by internal disputes.
Askia Daoud (r. 1549-1582/1583): He had a long and relatively peaceful reign, during which the empire saw significant prosperity and trade expansion. However, the later years of his rule experienced some internal strife and external threats.
Askia Ishaq II (r. 1588-1591): He was one of the last powerful rulers of the Songhai Empire. During his reign, the empire started facing more pronounced internal divisions and external pressures, especially from the Moroccans.

What was the administrative structure of the empire?

The Songhai Empire had a centralized system with the emperor at the top. Provinces were governed by appointed officials. Askia Muhammad is credited with establishing an organized bureaucratic system and legal structures.

How did the Songhai Empire impact Africa’s history?

The Songhai Empire stands as one of West Africa’s largest and most powerful empires. It contributed to the spread of Islam, the development of trade routes, and the flourishing of African arts, culture, and scholarship.

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The Songhai Empire: A Journey Through West Africa’s Golden Age

Welcome to the vibrant world of the Songhai Empire, a powerhouse of trade, scholarship, and military might that once dominated the landscape of West Africa. Join us as we embark on a journey through its storied history, exploring the empire’s rise to greatness and its enduring legacy in the region.

The Rise of Songhai

Our journey begins in the 15th century, when the Songhai Empire emerged as a formidable force in West Africa. Established by the charismatic leader Sunni Ali Ber, Songhai rapidly expanded its territory through a series of military conquests, eventually becoming the largest empire in West Africa. Under Sunni Ali’s rule, Songhai’s military prowess and strategic alliances secured its dominance over the lucrative trans-Saharan trade routes, bringing wealth and prosperity to the empire.

Scholarship and Culture

But Songhai’s greatness was not confined to the battlefield. The empire was also a center of learning and culture, with the city of Timbuktu emerging as a renowned hub of scholarship and intellectual exchange. Scholars from across the Islamic world flocked to Timbuktu’s libraries and universities, making it one of the most important centers of learning in the medieval world. The empire’s patronage of education and the arts fostered a rich cultural heritage that continues to influence West Africa to this day.

The Legacy of Trade

Central to Songhai’s success was its control of the trans-Saharan trade routes, which allowed it to amass vast wealth and resources. Gold, salt, ivory, and slaves flowed through Songhai’s markets, enriching the empire and fueling its growth. The city of Gao, situated on the Niger River, became a bustling commercial hub, attracting traders from across the region and beyond.

The Decline of Songhai

Despite its prosperity, Songhai was not immune to internal strife and external pressures. In the late 16th century, the empire faced attacks from neighboring states and internal rebellions, weakening its grip on power. In 1591, Songhai suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Moroccan invaders armed with gunpowder weapons, marking the end of its golden age.

Enduring Legacy

Though the Songhai Empire may have fallen, its legacy lives on in the hearts and minds of the people of West Africa. From its towering mosques and palaces to its rich oral traditions and cultural heritage, Songhai continues to inspire and captivate us today. As we reflect on its history, let us remember the Songhai Empire as a shining example of Africa’s golden age – a testament to the ingenuity, resilience, and greatness of its people.

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The Axumite Empire: Unveiling the Jewel of the Horn of Africa

The Kingdom of Kush: Unveiling the Nile’s Ancient Jewel
The Kingdom of Aksum: Unveiling Ethiopia’s Ancient Marvel
The Songhai Empire: A Journey Through West Africa’s Golden Age
The Mali Empire: Africa’s Golden Age

The Zimbabwean Kingdoms: Unveiling Southern Africa’s Ancient Marvels

The Ghana Empire: Tracing the Origins of West Africa’s Legendary Realm

3.2 The Songhai Empire

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the characteristics that defined imperial Songhai
Discuss the ways in which internal conflict led to the decline of the Songhai Empire

The Sudanic kingdom of Songhai was the largest fifteenth-century African state in West Africa. At its height, it stretched from Senegal-Gambia on the Atlantic coast in the west all the way to Kano in the Hausaland region of present-day Nigeria in the southeast, and to the salt-mining trade center of Taghaza in the north. Founded by Sunni Ali in the late fifteenth century, Songhai reached its imperial height under the founder of the Askia dynasty, Muhammad Ture, a general and provisional governor who overthrew Sunni Ali’s legitimate successor.

The Rise of Imperial Songhai

The earliest dynasty of kings of the Songhai state was the Za , which tradition and later historical records suggest ruled the kingdom during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Tradition also holds that the first fourteen rulers of the Songhai state, which was initially centered on Kukiya, approximately eighty miles southeast of Gao, were jahiliyyah (“ignorant of God”); jahiliyyah is a word used by Muslims to describe the ignorance of people before gaining knowledge of Islam. Sometime in the 1000s, the dynasty converted to Islam, possibly under Za Kusay. It was also at some point during this period that the political focus of the kingdom shifted from Kukiya to Gao .

As kola nuts, dates, ivory, salt, leather, enslaved people, and gold passed through the capital, traders and merchants prospered. While a boon locally, the prosperity of Gao drew the attention of the new and expansionistic West African kingdom of Mali, which annexed Gao around 1325. This was the heyday of imperial Mali, and for the next century, its rulers profited from Gao’s trade and collected taxes from its kings.

Link to Learning

To learn more about the Songhai Empire, watch The Songhai Empire: Africa’s Age of Gold and consider why it is called a cosmopolitan empire. What was unique about Timbuktu?

The annexation of Gao greatly expanded the Malian Empire, but it did not last. Periodic rebellions by the peoples of Timbuktu, Takedda, and Gao, coupled with invasions from the north, civil war, and a struggling economy, caused Gao’s Malian rulers to withdraw from the region in the 1430s. The leader of the Songhai rebels at Gao, Sunni Ali , became the first king of the new Songhai Empire . From his capital at Gao, Sunni Ali engaged in a war of conquest against his Muslim neighbors. Marshalling his massive cavalry and fleet of war canoes, the king extended his empire into the desert in the north and as far as Djenné in the southwest. In the late fifteenth century, his army pushed southward beyond the Niger and raided deep into the Volta River Basin, encroaching on the territory of the Mossi, multiple linguistic groups whose cultures differed but who were loosely connected politically.

In 1468, Sunni Ali sacked Timbuktu . He drove its Amazigh governor from the city, killed many of its scholars, and forced others into exile. Sunni Ali’s conquest of Timbuktu earned him a reputation as a butcher and a tyrant. “He perpetuated terrible wickedness in the city, putting it to flame, sacking it, and killing large numbers of people,” one chronicler from Timbuktu recorded. Sunni Ali’s assault on the scholarly community at Timbuktu prompted the survivors’ exodus to Oualata, leading to a significant decline in Islamic scholarship at Timbuktu. Many of the merchants who had thrived under the city’s Tuareg overlords also fled. As a result, the city slipped into a period of economic decline and did not recover until after Sunni Ali’s death.

It was not enough for Sunni Ali to capture Timbuktu. Securing the vital corridor of trade along the growing Songhai Empire’s western frontier also required capturing the southern trading center of Djenné , a long-standing point of exchange for caravans carrying salt, gold, and enslaved Africans bound for the Atlantic or trans-Saharan slave trades. Sunni Ali attempted to capture Djenné for several years, but the fact that the city was surrounded by water during the annual flooding of the Bani River made the task impossible. Only after a seven-month siege was he finally able to subdue the city, which surrendered in 1473.

In contrast to his harsh actions at Timbuktu, Sunni Ali accommodated the community of Muslim scholars at Djenné, where they remained great preservers of Islamic learning and continued to produce work on Islamic philosophy and the sciences through the seventeenth century. The mosque and university had thousands of teachers and students who mastered a wide range of subjects, including Islamic law, astronomy, math, and philosophy ( Figure 3.10 ).

The Reign of Askia the Great

On the death of Sunni Ali in 1492, his son Sonni Baru came to the throne but reigned less than a year. Muhammad Ture, one of Sunni Ali’s generals and provincial governors, challenged Sonni Baru, and when the two met in battle in April 1493, Sonni Baru was defeated. Muhammad Ture then usurped the throne and took power as Askia Muhammad, later known as Askia the Great . His reign marked the beginning of the Askia dynasty.

Askia the Great strengthened the Songhai Empire and made it the largest in West Africa’s history by adding tributary lands to the east and to the west. At its height, the Songhai Empire stretched from Kano in Hausaland in the southeast (present-day Nigeria) to Taghaza with its valuable salt mines in the north, and modern-day Senegal on the Atlantic coast ( Figure 3.11 ). One of Askia’s primary objectives was to control access to the major trade routes across the Sahara. His success in doing so was rapid: by 1512, it is chronicled that even the mansa of Mali was paying tribute to Askia.

Askia the Great also transformed the nature of Songhai rulership. Under Sunni Ali, Songhai administration at the provincial level had been left in the hands of traditional rulers. Askia abandoned this model in favor of designating royal family members or trusted servants. As appointees of the king, these provincial governors were entirely dependent on the ruler and had to remain in his favor. The governors were invested with a great deal of authority, however; they could, for example, raise their own armies to collect local taxes. Abandoning the use of traditional rulers had the effect of strengthening the centralizing tendency of the state under Sunni Ali. Whereas before such provincial officials might take advantage of dynastic struggles to assert their authority and form a breakaway region or state, the placement of royally appointed officials closely aligned with the king dramatically curtailed this risk. That the state remained intact despite frequent dynastic struggles during Askia’s later reign speaks to the success of this policy.

Islam was crucial to Askia the Great’s consolidation of control. Not ethnically Songhai and thus unable to rely on traditional institutions and rituals to legitimate his rule, Askia instead based his authority on Islam and quickly set out to establish Songhai as a Muslim kingdom. In 1498, he declared a holy war against the non-Muslim Mossi to justify his incursions into their territory. He also recognized the importance of Islam to trans-Saharan trade and used his post-accession pilgrimage to Mecca to advertise his concern for the faith. During his stopover in Cairo, Askia convinced Egypt’s caliph , its spiritual and secular leader, to recognize him as caliph of the whole of Sudan. While in Mecca he spent lavishly, contributing some 100,000 gold pieces to charity and related almsgiving programs. He did not force his subjects to convert, however, and most retained their traditional religious beliefs.

Dueling Voices

The great ruler of songhai: askia muhammad.

The following sources were written by observers of the Songhai Empire. The first, called the Epic of Askia Muhammad , is a written rendition of a tale told by a griot (a West African oral historian, poet, musician, storyteller, and praise-singer) and describes how Askia the Great established his empire. In the excerpt, Askia Muhammed is told how he can repent for having killed his uncle. The second excerpt is from Leo Africanus’s Description of Africa , which he wrote in the sixteenth century and describes the city of Gao and the tactics of Askia Muhammad.

Go home and start a holy war, So that you can make them submit until you reach the Red Sea. [. . .] [Askiya Muhammed] went home to Gao. It is at this time he gathered together all the horses. He took all the horses. He began by the west. [. . .] Early in the morning, they pillage and they go on to the next village . . . The cavalryman who goes there, He traces on the ground for the people the plan for the mosque. . . . The people build the mosque. It is at that time, Mamar Kassaye [Askiya Muhammed] comes to dismount from his horse. He makes the people— They teach them verses from the Koran relating to prayer. They teach them prayers from the Koran. Any villages that refuse, he destroys the village, burns it, and moves on. [. . .] Until that day [. . .] he arrived at the Red Sea. —Nouhou Malio, “The Epic of Askia Mohammed”

The Town and Kingdom [Songhay] of Gao Here are very rich merchants and to here journey continually large numbers of blacks who purchase here cloth from Barbary [North Africa] and Europe. . . . Here also is a certain place where slaves are sold, especially upon those days when merchants assemble. A young slave of fifteen years of age is sold for six ducats [gold coins] and children are also sold. The king of this region has a certain private palace in which he keeps a large number of concubines and slaves, who are watched by eunuchs. To guard his person he maintains a sufficient troop of horsemen and foot soldiers. Between the first gate of the palace and the inner part, there is a walled enclosure wherein the king personally decides all of his subjects' controversies. Although the king is most diligent in this regard and conducts all business in these matters, he has in his company counsellors and such other officers as his secretaries, treasurers, stewards and auditors. It is a wonder to see the quality of merchandise that is daily brought here and how costly and sumptuous everything is. . . . The rest of this kingdom contains nothing but villages and hamlets inhabited by herdsmen and shepherds, who in winter cover their bodies with the skins of animals, but in summer they go naked, save for their private parts. . . . They are continually burdened by heavy taxes; to the point that they scarcely have anything left on which to live. Of the Province of Kano The great province of Kano stands eastward of the river Niger almost five hundred miles . . . . [Their king] had mighty troops of horsemen at his command; but he has since been constrained to pay tribute unto the kings of Zegzeg and Casena. Afterward Askiya the king of Timbuktu [Songhay] feigning friendship treacherously slew them both. And then he waged war against the king of Kano, whom after a long siege he took, and compelled him to marry one of his daughters, restoring him again to his kingdom, conditionally that he should pay unto him the third part of all his tribute [taxes]: and the said king of Timbuktu has some of his courtiers perpetually residing at Kano for the receit [receiving] thereof. —Leo Africanus, Description of Africa (1550)

How do the two accounts differ in their description of Askia the Great?
According to these accounts, how did Askia establish and maintain power in his empire?
Would you consider Askia the Great to have been a strong ruler? Would you consider him to have been a benevolent ruler? Why or why not?

Askia the Great extended his territory deeper into the desert through military conquest. The advance of Songhai’s army forced the Tuareg nomads to flee, which allowed the Songhai to capture the salt-producing center of Taghaza in the north. Askia did more to regulate trans-Saharan trade than any of his predecessors. He not only introduced the use of standardized weights and measures but also employed trade inspectors at each of the empire’s major trade centers. The Hausaland kingdoms recognized the revival of trade under the Songhai and its benefits and so came into the orbit of the Songhai Empire’s broader trading network.

The primary sources of the Songhai Empire’s wealth continued to be agricultural production centered on the Niger floodplain and taxes on trade goods, especially gold and salt, both of which had also been key to the economy of the Mali Empire. Salt remained Songhai’s currency for external trade, while cowrie shells were used for internal trade ( Figure 3.12 ). Cowrie shells were imported from the Indian Ocean. They were thus relatively scarce and could not be counterfeited. Gold remained the primary good transported along the trans-Saharan trade routes, but enslaved captives and kola nuts were also exported. The empire imported a variety of goods, including Saharan salt , luxury goods, horses, and cloth.

Timbuktu , which had been destroyed by Sunni Ali, revived during the rule of Askia the Great. Leo Africanus observed that the city was a prosperous one filled with artisans and wealthy merchants as well as many enslaved people. According to his sixteenth-century account, in Timbuktu there were “great numbers of religious teachers, judges, scholars and other learned persons, who are bountifully maintained at the king’s expense. Here too are brought various manuscripts or written books from Barbary, which are sold for more money than any other merchandise.” By the mid-sixteenth century, public libraries had been established, and scribes and calligraphers had been hired to copy books ( Figure 3.13 ). As Islamic scholarship once again flourished at Timbuktu, so too did higher learning. Students engaged in multiple tutorials in various fields of study with Islamic scholars and, when they achieved mastery of these subjects, went on to become teachers themselves.

Learn about and see pictures of the tomb of Askia the Great in Gao, Mali. You can follow links on the same page to learn about other items of historical interest in Mali.

The Decline of Songhai

Under Askia the Great, the Songhai Empire flourished. Religious scholars and poets flocked to cities like Timbuktu and Djenné. Islam became more widely practiced. The state embarked on an ambitious infrastructure development scheme, including the construction of canals to enhance agricultural production. Trans-Saharan trade thrived. However, as Askia grew older, his personal power declined, and he relied heavily on his palace officials to manage the affairs of the empire. This alienated his family members, who grew resentful of the power of Askia’s head chamberlain, Ali Fulan.

In 1528 Askia’s sons revolted, deposed him, and declared one of the brothers, Musa, king. Askia Musa’s accession was not smooth, however, and civil war erupted. As Askia Musa waged battle against his kin to retain his position, dozens of his relatives were killed. Musa himself fell victim to this strife and was killed by his brothers in 1531, deepening the crisis and further destabilizing the state. As successive rulers’ attempts at governing the empire failed, political chaos consumed the ruling class and military as they vied for control. Without effective administration from the center, Songhai weakened, and external groups began eyeing an opportunity to intervene and seize control of the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. This was particularly the case for the Saadi dynasty of Morocco .

In 1578, the Saadi had repulsed an invasion by the Portuguese, but only at an enormous cost, draining the imperial coffers. To stave off bankruptcy, Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi cast about for new resources. All this unfolded just as a sense of stability and calm had returned to Songhai under the reign of Askia Ishaq II , which began in 1588. However, this revival of Songhai’s fortunes proved short-lived; the Saadi invaded in 1591. Although it was greatly outnumbered by the forces of Songhai, the Saadi army had an insurmountable advantage: a stockpile of guns, ammunition, and cannon supplied by Queen Elizabeth I of England, who hoped to make Morocco an ally against Spain. The Saadi army also contained many Spanish Muslims. In 1502, the Spanish monarchs had ordered all Muslims in Spain to convert to Christianity, and many Muslims had fled the country. Outmatched, the larger Songhai army was defeated at the Battle of Tondibi, and Askia Ishaq II was killed.

Following their victory on the battlefield, the commander of the Saadi army, an enslaved Spanish eunuch named Judar Pasha, moved on the key cities and trading centers of the empire. The Saadi sacked and pillaged Djenné , Gao , and Timbuktu , burning them to the ground. To seal their victory, the invaders filled in water wells and destroyed fields of crops. They spared few, not even women and children. The Songhai Empire’s power was rendered ineffective after the looting and destruction of these cities. A decade later, the empire was shattered, its provinces divided into several smaller kingdoms and territories.

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Songhai: The African Empire that Grew Greater than the Mali

The Songhai Empire was a great trading state found in West Africa that flourished between the 15th and 16th centuries. It was centered on the Niger River near where present Mali is today.

It extended all the way to the Atlantic coast and into Niger and Nigeria . Its capital was Gao, which is now a small trading town on the Niger River and was home to the Tomb of Askia and the Gao Mosque.

It was founded around 800 AD but did not hit a peak until the 15th century. It grew so prosperous that it attracted the interest of the neighboring Mali Empire and was conquered by it in the 14th century.

But this would not last. Here is the story of the Songhai.

Pre-imperial Songhai

The Songhai people began as a smaller kingdom that ran alongside the eastern side of the Niger River. However, in the reign of King Sunni Ali (reigning 1464-1492), their territory expanded greatly.

Before this, several different groups of people would be formed into the Songhai people. The first people to settle in the region of Gao were the people known as the Sorko. The Sorko fashioned boats and canoes from local trees and used these for fishing and hunting . The Gao people joined them in this area and specialized in hunting animals that lived in the river such as the hippopotamus and the crocodile .

Another group of people would soon join them, and they were known as the Do people. However, they were more agriculturally inclined and raised crops in fertile lands around the river.

Before the 10th century, all of these peoples were assimilated into one nation by a powerful group that rode on horseback and spoke Songhai. They established control and began to incorporate other people.

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The earliest dynasties of the Songhai people are obscured in history. Most of the information comes from an ancient cemetery found near Saney which is close to Gao. Some of the inscriptions indicate that the ruling dynasty was established before the 11th and 12th centuries. They all seem to have borne the name “Malik” which is king in Arabic.

These forgotten kings were rich, however. Evidence of luxuries such as gold, salt, slaves, dates, leather, ivory, and kola nuts have been associated with the early Songhai. Due to the popularity of these trade goods, Gao soon became very prosperous and thus attracted the attention of the nearby and powerful Mali Empire.

Unfortunately, Gao was conquered by the Mali Empire and all of the financial gains were redirected to Mali. This lasted until around the 1430s. However, troubles in Mali made it difficult to maintain control of Gao.

Freedom from Mali

In the 1360s, the ruler of Mali, Mansa Sulayman died. This led to political instability and succession disputes. The empire was weakened as it fell into turmoil and internal disputes.

Mari Djarta II was appointed as ruler but he was an ineffective king that led the empire into terrible financial troubles. Remarkably, the large empire managed to stay together and was passed to Musa II. Rebellions however began to spring forth which allowed the Songhai people to liberate Gao.

One influential leader in the Songhai people, Sunni Ali, was able to properly establish the Songhai empire in the late 15th century. He worked hard to fully liberate Gao from Mali, made possible by the political insurrection in the Mali Empire.

He aided other local peoples and help to rid them of the Mali invaders . Ali managed to drive them out of kingdoms such as Timbuktu and liberated/took control of most of the trading cities along the Niger River.

Sunni Ali conquered many of the region’s neighboring states and much of the Mali Empire. He has been considered the Songhai Empire’s most formidable military leader and strategist.

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Ali conquered any lands and repelled attacks from the Mossi and Dogon People. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468 and after a seven-year siege , he added Djenne. This was an incredibly prosperous trading town.

However, Ali was not known as a benevolent ruler. He has been described as an intolerant tyrant by many Muslim writers due to his despicable behavior toward the citizens of Timbuktu. He followed a repressive policy against the writers of Timbuktu and slaughtered many of them. It must be conceded though that he brought great wealth to the Songhai Empire.

Ali was succeeded by a ruler that became known as Askia the Great. Askia furthered the boundaries of the empire to the South and the East, and he created a full-time army for the Songhai Empire. Not only this, but Askia also pursued more peaceful policies such as seeking alliances and opening religious schools.

He even took a hajj to Mecca and donated vast sums of money to impress the people of Mecca. Along the way, he recruited Muslim Scholars from Egypt to teach at his new schools. However, it was not to last.

As Askia grew older his power declined. In 1528, he faced a revolt from his own sons which was successful. Unfortunately, like a mirror to the Mali Empire, this led to political unrest. Musa, who had overthrown his father, lasted only 3 years before being overthrown in 1531.

There were multiple attempts to overthrow the rulers and the empire began to decline. What did not help was the Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire. They hailed from Morocco and hoped to seize control of the trade of salt and gold .

Despite the professional armies of the Songhai empire, they were never modernized like the armies of Morocco, who brought with them cannons and arquebusiers. In 1591, the Battle of Tondibi was decisive and the Moroccans destroyed the entire Songhai army before marching to capture Goa and Timbuktu.

It was a short-lived empire but one that managed to spread quite significantly across Western Africa. However, political turmoil, civil wars, and a lack of technology would ultimately bring the downfall of the empire and it would never rise to such heights again.

Top Image: The Tomb of Askia, perhaps the most successful ruler of the Songhai Empire. Source: Taguelmoust / CC BY-SA 3.0 .

By Kurt Readman

Cartwright, M. 2019. Songhai Empire . Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/

Jarus, O. 2013. Timbuktu: History of Fabled Center of Learning . Available at: https://www.livescience.com/26451-timbuktu.html

Lotha, G. 2023. Songhai Empire . Available at: https://www.britannica.com/place/Songhai-empire/additional-info#history

Tesfu, J. 2008. Songhai Empire (CA. 1375-1591) . Available at: https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/songhai-empire-ca-1375-1591/

Willard, A. 1993. Gold, Islam and Camels: The Transformative Effects of Trade and Ideology . Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol28/iss28/6/

Kurt Readman

Having graduated from University in History and Archaeology my strengths lie in research, writing and presentations. I have been invited to various conferences to present my research and have had success in this. I have also began social media outreach for a local historical research group. I have had numerous experiences in presenting my research to a variety of audiences from academic, public and children. Read More

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Historyradio.org

“The Golden Age of the Songhay Empire”, by D. T. Niane

Along the southern fringe of the Sahara (the largest desert in the world) lies the Sahel, a sparsely vegetated transitional area between the desert and the savanna. In Arabic ‘sahel’ means ‘shore’, as if the Sahara were a sea of sand and rock, crossed by caravans of camels in the guise of ships, and the cities of the Sahel the ports where the camels offload their cargo. This open area runs from the mouth of the Senegal River on the Atlantic to the far reaches of Lake Chad without any major geographical obstacles. Despite being a semi-arid zone, the Sahel is wonderfully irrigated by the excellent Niger and Senegal river systems. Thus the Sahel is concomitantly home to agricultural communities (Wolof, Serer, Soninke, Malinke, Songhai and Hausa), pastoral communities (Berbers and Fulani) and fishing communities (Thioubalo, Sorko and Bozo). There were three great empires in succession in the Sahel, originally called Bilād al-Sudan by Berber Arab travellers and geographers, between the fourth and sixteenth centuries – the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire.

Islam in the Sahel

Islam made inroads into the Sahel in the second century of the Hegira. In 734, an Omayyad expedition crossed the Sahara into the ‘State of Ghana’, from which it brought back an abundance of gold; the area then became known as the ‘land of gold’, the Muslims’ genuine el Dorado. The military expedition was short-lived, but it paved the way for trade. It is noteworthy that Islam spread peacefully in Bilād al-Sudan, through the influence of merchants and holy men, not by force of arms.

Subsequent travellers and geographers underlined the splendour of Ghana’s sovereigns, who held sway over several Bilād al-Sudan kingdoms, including those of Mali and Songhai.

In the tenth century, the traveller and geographer Ibn Hawqal described the king of Ghana as ‘the richest sovereign on earth, for he possesses great wealth and reserves of gold that have been extracted since early times to the advantage of former kings and his own.’

News of the ‘land of gold’ actually triggered a rush by Muslim merchants, particularly as the very open-minded and tolerant animist princes and kings employed Muslims as advisers. The Andalusian geographer al-Bakrī wrote that the sovereign had a mosque built near his palace for Muslims visiting the royal city on business – a tolerant environment that contributed to the rapid spread of Islam among the various peoples.

The consequences of the discovery of the Sahel were considerable, for the Muslim world therefore extended well beyond the Sahara, encompassing a multitude of black peoples. With its abundance of gold, the Sahel, the new dominion won over to Islam, was literally an inexhaustible source of the precious metal that was then in desperately short supply in both the Muslim and the Christian West. The Sahel thus held pride of place in the concert of Muslim nations and kingdoms. Sahelian cities – Audaghost, Kumbi, Niani, Timbuktu and Gao – throve as staging posts on the caravan routes that linked them to international trade.

From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, Sijilmasa, a caravan city in southern Morocco and bridgehead to the cities in the Sahel, was a meeting place for merchants not only from the Maghreb and Spain but also from the Mashriq, in particular Basra, Kufa and Baghdad. Merchants of the latter city, who had settled in large numbers in Sijilmasa, specialized in the gold trade with two major Sahelian cities – Kumbi and Audaghost. The traveller Ibn Hawqal wrote that ‘they won considerable profits, great advantages and ample wealth’ and that ‘very few traders in Islamic countries are as well established’.

As an example of the wealth of the Bilād al-Sudan merchants and the scale of their transactions, Ibn Hawqal reported an unprecedented incident: in the city of Audaghost, the second largest city in the Ghana Empire, he saw a merchant with a bill for 42,000 dinars made out to a merchant in Sijilmasa. He noted in amazement, ‘I have never seen or heard the like of this in the East. I have told the story in Iraq, in Fars and in Khorasan, and everyone has found it incredible.’

Sijilmasa reached the height of its glory in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Al-Mas˓ūdī, the author of Meadows of gold and mines of gems, wrote, ‘All of the gold used by merchants is struck at Sijilmasa, particularly dinars’.

Other mints were opened up later, in Almoravid times, mainly in Aghmat, Tlemcen and Marrakesh. The cities in the Sahel were very charming; travellers from the East were particularly impressed by Audaghost, for they thought that ‘of all the cities in the world, it resembles Mecca the most’.

Trans-Saharan trade boomed under the emperors of Mali, and Islam reached far south into the savannah to Sudan. However, when the trade routes shifted towards Egypt, Sijilmasa declined in importance and Kumbi was over shadowed by Niani, the capital of Mali.

The emperors of Mali effectively controlled imports and exports by means of a tax system that filled the public coffers, and the Songhai cities of Timbuktu and Gao gained greatly by the revival of trade in Mali. Converted to Islam in the eleventh century, the emperors of Mali were devout Muslims and several went on pilgrimage to Mecca. The most famous was Mansa Musa, whose 1324 pilgrimage was widely discussed in the Maghreb and Egypt until the very end of the century. Mansa Musa lived in grand style, with a retinue of some 10,000 people; he and his retinue completely flooded the Egyptian capital with so much gold that the value of the dinar plummeted. The lavish pilgrim gave alms generously in the holy cities and brought back to Mali several men of learning, sharīfs and an architect, Isḥāq al-Tuedjin, who built him in Timbuktu a palace (madugu) and the great mosque (djinguereber). He built another mosque in Gao and is credited with the Goundam and Diré mosques. He also built a mosque and an audience chamber for the sovereign in Niani. The emperor’s architect settled in Timbuktu, where he died in 1346.

That pilgrimage had far-reaching consequences, both in the Muslim world and the Christian west. The myth or legend of Bilād al-Sudan extraordinarily rich in gold was one that came true; Christians learnt of the pilgrimage from Muslim accounts, and Europeans became genuinely interested in the region. Thus, Angelino Dulcert’s famous map revealed to Christians in 1339 the existence of a gold-rich ‘Rex Melli’ and, in 1375, the Majorcans, who had gleaned this knowledge from the Arabs, produced a very accurate map of Africa showing Mansa Musa on a throne holding a nugget of gold. From the fourteenth century onwards many attempts were made by Europeans to fathom the secret of the trans-Saharan routes leading to ‘Rex Melli’. The best-known European exploration was the journey in 1447 by Malfante, a Genoan, as far as Tuat, but he could not go any farther. Europe’s ‘gold lust’ grew stronger; ‘Sudanese gold’ fever inflamed minds, but the ‘Muslim curtain’ remained impassable. Minting resumed in Europe in the fourteenth century, however, when Bilād al-Sudan gold was supplied by the Muslims.

After the emperors of Mali, the sovereigns of Songhai, fully aware of the stakes and wishing to maximize profits from the trans-Saharan trade, tightened control over imports and exports. The Egyptians, for their part, very effectively prohibited all Christian inroads south of Cairo.

Under the Songhai emperors, Islam in the Bilād al-Sudan spread beyond city confines to the countryside owing to the influence of black Wangara, Soninke and Songhai merchants. The Songhai emperors were not only devout Muslims but also, for the most part, fine men of letters. Askiya Muhammad made the pilgrimage to Mecca accompanied by many learned men and Qur˒ānic scholars. Upon his return, after being dubbed Caliph of Takrur (West Africa) by Moulay El-Abbas, the Ḥassanid sharīf, imam of Mecca, Askiya Muhammad began to spread Islam through jihād. Anxious to rule in accordance with Qur˒ānic precepts, he consulted celebrated figures such as al-Suyūṭī, the Arab writer, and al-Maghili, the famous Tlemcen legal scholar. Being an enlightened sovereign, he encouraged the advancement of learning by granting stipends to Islamic scholars.

As a result, the Sahel became an integral part of the Muslim world during the reign of the Songhai emperors. Sovereigns of the Sahel and sovereigns of the Maghreb and Egypt exchanged letters and gifts.

One sign of such integration was the frequency of missions and journeys from Bilād al-Sudan to the cities of the Maghreb and Egypt. Cairo was home to many merchants and scholars from Bilād al-Sudan. In the late fourteenth century, the great historian Ibn Khaldūn obtained first-hand information about the sovereigns of Mali from that country’s embassy in Cairo. The very existence of many principalities and cities in the Maghreb was closely linked to improved relations with the Sahel. Thus Muslims could trade and travel in a vast area from the shores of the Mediterranean across the Sahara to the Niger Bend. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Cairo became a hub for pilgrims from cities throughout the Sahel; many sovereigns, including Mansa Musa and Askiya Muhammad, bought houses in holy cities to accommodate pilgrims from Bilād al-Sudan.

It is noteworthy that geographical knowledge in the Muslim world was much greater than the information provided by Ptolemy in ancient times, which was still being used in its original form in the Christian West.

The age of the Askiyas Songhai humanism It is not easy to pinpoint the apogee of a civilization. Did the Bilād al-Sudan civilization and Islam in the Sahel reach their zenith in the tenth and eleventh centuries when the Ghana Empire, the ‘land of gold’, drew merchants not only from the Maghreb but also from Khorasan, Baghdad and Basra and when bills and other letters of credit were circulating between Audaghost and Sijilmasa, or in the fourteenth century when the Mali emperor Mansa Musa and his numerous suite of pilgrims flooded Cairo and the holy cities with gold, or in the age of the Songhai emperors, when Askiya Muhammad returned from Mecca with his retinue of learned men and Islamic scholars, crowned with the title of Caliph of West Africa?

Those periods were all high points, but the age of the Askiyas was particularly outstanding owing to the brilliance of its intellectual works and the humanism that blossomed along the Niger Bend. The Songhai Empire provided the background for a dazzling black Muslim civilization, to which the Songhai, Soninke, Mandingo, Berbers and Fulani all contributed. At the time Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne were cosmopolitan cities in which all ethnic groups of the Sahel mingled. There were many Arabs and Berbers as well. Islam was a powerful unifying force in the Sahel both spiritually and culturally; in those cities where trade brought together people of different ethnic origins, their shared faith created a convivial atmosphere conducive to fruitful commingling.

Art The art of the Sahel, commonly known as ‘Sudanese art’, is merely the outcome of techniques and practises that blossomed and peaked under the Ghana and Mali empires. Mansa Musa, both a patron and a builder, owing to the work of his architect Isḥāq al-Tuedjin, set his stamp on Sudanese architecture: adobe edifices reinforced by projecting wooden stakes. The monuments in Jenne, Timbuktu and Gao are particularly typical of this style.

This architecture reached its peak in the sixteenth century in the age of the Askiyas, who were great builders. Most of the buildings that are the pride of present-day Timbuktu and Gao date from the age of the Askiyas; the Sahel’s semi-arid climate has preserved these adobe monuments well. The craftsmen and masons of Jenne, the master builders of those imposing monuments, formed a powerful guild in the service of the sovereigns. The great mosque of Timbuktu (Djinguereber mosque) built by Mansa Musa was completely restored by Askiya Dawud, son of Askiya Muhammad, and the famous qāḍī al-Aqib; with its timber spikes and the flattened cone of its minaret, it dominates the entire city. The same qāḍī built the Sankore mosque, and its simple and austere lines won travellers’ admiration. It is now the seat of the University of Timbuktu.

In Gao the pyramidal tomb of Askiya Muhammad genuinely epitomised the Sudanese style, with its majestic bulk exuding grace and nobility. The monument that really symbolized elegance, however, was the mosque of Jenne, dating from the fourteenth century. Many residences of Islamic scholars and other men of letters in Timbuktu such as the house of Bagayogo and that of Abu-l-Barakāt, date back to that period. Civil architecture is well preserved in the Sahel on account of the dry climate.

Songhai humanism was religious in essence; ‘rather than being a revival’, wrote the historian Sekene Mody Cissoko, ‘it represented a flowering of African civilization, the outcome of a long history dating back to the Ghana Empire.’

Under the Askiyas the cities of Gao, Jenne and especially Timbuktu became both centres of intellectual life and seats of academic learning, drawing students from cities throughout the Sahel.

Study of the Qur˒ān formed the basis of education, since Arabic was the language of scholars and men of letters. Elementary education, provided by holy men throughout the city, was based on recitation and translation of the Qur˒ān. There were no fewer than 120 schools in the city of Timbuktu alone. Secondary education concentrated on interpretation of the Qur˒ān, while law (fikh), theology (tawḥīd), traditions (ḥadīth) and astronomy were taught at the university. Geography and history were held in high esteem in the Sahel,

Philosophy, law and letters The sixteenth century was renowned for its scintillating intellectual activity, but the age of the Askiyas was above all that of the jurists, many of whom were famous, for Mohammed Touré, Salih Diawara, Mohammed Bagayogo, al-Aqib and Ahmed Baba all enjoyed the protection and liberality of the sovereigns. Several of them held the office of qāḍī in Jenne, Timbuktu or Gao, and all were theologians of great scholarship who devoted themselves to religious disciplines. However, few were drawn to the positive sciences; the heyday of Arab science admittedly lay in the past, in the fourteenth century. Although their works cannot all be mentioned, a few words will be said about two of the most celebrated scholars of the age of the Askiyas – Mohammed Bagayogo and Ahmed Baba.

Mohammed Bagayogo was a great jurist, a thinker and an outstanding teacher; the Timbuktu historian ˓Abderrahman Sadi wrote of Mohammed Bagayogo that with his ‘fine, scrupulous and lively wit and shrewd, discerning mind, always ready with a reply and with the quick understanding of a brilliant intellect, he was a man of few words.’ This peerless teacher had a large library that was open to anyone in search of knowledge. He was also a theologian and grammarian, and his lectures at Sankore were well-attended.

The great sixteenth-century scholar Sidi Ahmed Baba (1556–1627) was a pupil of Mohammed Bagayogo. Born in Arawan into a family of scholars, he was ‘the jewel of his age’ and ‘his vast intellect and his infallible memory made him a mine of knowledge’.

He was a historian, a theologian and a jurist. When taken to Marrakesh as a prisoner, as were many scholars from Timbuktu after the Sultan of Morocco had captured the city, he impressed the scholars there. The Sultan freed him and gave him permission to teach. The Arab men of learning called him the ‘standard of standards’. He had one of the largest libraries in the city, thought to contain more than 1,700 works. He wrote a substantial amount, but only extracts from two of his works have survived – Nayl al-ibtihāj, a bibliographical encyclopaedia of Islamic scholars and other learned men, and Mi ˓rāj al-ṣu ˓ūd, devoted to the history of the peoples of Bilād al-Sudan.

History flourished in the age of the Askiyas: a family of historians – Maḥmud Kati (1468–1554) and his grandson – produced Tārīkh al-fattāsh, a work dedicated to the history of the Askiyas, which contains valuable information about the Sahelian kingdoms.

˓Abderrahman Sadi was the great historian of the Sahel: his Tārīkh al-Sudān covers the entire history of the Songhai Empire, and his critical judgment is outstanding.

Animated map from youtube

Timbuktu, the great Songhai metropolis, had 100,000 inhabitants in the late sixteenth century; its influence extended throughout the Sahel, drawing thousands of students, doctors, jurists and teachers of renown. The city had attained a high degree of sophistication. To quote the historian Kati, who described it shortly before it was captured by Spanish mercenary converts in 1591, ‘Timbuktu had reached the pinnacle of beauty and splendour; religion flourished within its confines, and the Sunna inspired every aspect of not only religious but also worldly affairs, although these two fields are apparently incompatible by definition. At the time Timbuktu was unrivalled among the cities of Bilād al-Sudan from Mali to the outer fringes of the Maghreb for the soundness of its institutions, its political freedoms, the purity of its morals, the safety of people and property, its clemency and compassion towards the poor and strangers, its courtesy to students and men of science and the assistance provided to the latter.’

Timbuktu was also a city of saints, whose tombs were visited by large numbers of people wanting to make a wish. It was the city of the San, the scholars who lived around the Sankore mosque (Sankore being the scholars’ quarter). Under the Askiyas, the city was placed under the authority of the qāḍī, who acted as mayor. He was responsible for managing taxation in the city and for providing all public services.

The qāḍīs of Timbuktu, who were respected by the Askiyas, governed the city very fairly; the inhabitants were peaceful people who dreaded violence: ‘You could come across a hundred of them, and none would have a lance, a sabre, a knife or anything but a staff ’ (Mahmud Kati).

The capture of Timbuktu by Moroccan troops was a disaster, but the deportation of the Islamic scholars to Morocco in 1593 was, to quote the historian Kati, ‘the greatest injury ever done to Islam’.

Without those illustrious figures, the city became a shell with no soul. It was a step backwards for civilization, and Timbuktu took a long time to recover.

This article was published online at the UNESCO website under a creative commons license: CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO

What Did the Songhai Empire Trade?

By: Author The Editors of Give Me History

Posted on March 10, 2023

The Kingdom of Songhai (or the Songhay Empire), the last kingdom of Western Sudan, grew from the Mali Empire’s ashes. Like the earlier kingdoms of this region, Songhai had control over the salt and gold mines.

While encouraging trade with Muslims (like the Berbers of North Africa), the thriving marketplaces in most cities had kola nuts, precious woods, palm oil, spices, slaves, ivory, and gold traded in exchange for copper, horses, arms, cloth, and salt. [1]

What Did the Songhai Empire Trade? Infographic.

Rise of the Empire and Trade Networks

The display of riches and generosity by the Muslim ruler of Mali was drawing the attention of Europe and the entire Islamic world. With the ruler’s death in the 14th century, Songhai began its rise around 1464. [2]

The Songhai Empire, established in 1468 by Sunni Ali, captured Timbuktu and Gao and was later succeeded by Muhammad Ture (a devout Muslim), who founded the Askia Dynasty in 1493.

These two rulers of the Songhai Empire introduced organized government to the area. In the first 100 years, it reached its peak with Islam as a religion, and the king actively promoted Islamic learning.

Ture improved trading with the standardization of currency, measures, and weights. Songhai gained riches through trade, just like the kingdoms of Mali and Ghana before it.

With the privileged class of craftsmen and slaves serving as farm workers, trade truly thrived under Ture, with the main exports being slaves, gold, and kola nuts. These were exchanged for salt, horses, textiles, and luxury goods.

Trade in the Songhai Empire

Taoudéni salt slabs, which have just been unloaded at the river port of Mopti (Mali).

The rise of Songhai came with a strong trade-based economy. Frequent pilgrimages from the Muslims of Mali promoted trade between Asia and West Africa. Just like in Ghana and Mali, the Niger River was a vital resource for goods transportation.

Apart from the local trade within Songhai, the Empire was involved in the Trans-Saharan salt and gold trade, alongside other goods like cowry shells, kola nuts, and slaves.

As traders traveled for long-distance trade across the Sahara Desert , they would get accommodation and food supplies from local towns along the trade route. [6]

The Trans-Saharan trade wasn’t limited to trading and exchanging salt, cloth, kola nuts, iron , copper, and gold. It also meant close cooperation and interdependence between the kingdoms south and north of the Sahara.

As important as gold was for the north, so was salt from the Sahara Desert, equally important for the economies and kingdoms of the south. It was the exchange of these commodities that helped in the region’s political and economic stability.

Economic Structure

A clan system determined the Songhai economy. The direct descendants of the original Songhai people and the noblemen were at the top, followed by traders and freemen. The common clans were carpenters, fishermen, and metalworkers.

Lower caste participants were mostly non-farm working immigrants who could hold high positions in society at times when provided with special privileges. At the bottom of the clan system were slaves and war captives, forced into labor (mainly farming).

While trade centers turned into modern urban centers with huge public squares for common marketplaces, rural communities largely relied on agriculture through rural markets. [4]

Atlantic System, Contact With the Europeans

Once the Portuguese arrived in the 15th century, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was on the rise, leading to the decline of the Songhai Empire, as it wasn’t able to raise taxes from the goods transported through its territory. The slaves were being transported across the Atlantic Ocean instead. [6]

The slave trade, which lasted for more than 400 years, significantly impacted the Songhai Empire’s fall. African slaves were captured and made to work as slaves in the Americas in the early 1500s. [1]

While Portugal, Britain, France, and Spain were the key players in the slave trade, Portugal established itself in the region first and entered into treaties with West African kingdoms. Hence, it had a monopoly on the gold and slave trade.

With expanding trade opportunities in the Mediterranean and Europe, trade increased across the Sahara, gaining access to the use of the Gambia and Senegal Rivers and bisecting the long-standing Trans-Saharan routes.

In exchange for ivory, pepper, slaves, and gold, the Portuguese brought horses, wine, tools, cloth, and copperware. This growing trade across the Atlantic was known as the triangular trade system.

The Triangular Trade System

The triangular trade, or the Atlantic Slave Trade, was a trading system revolving around three areas. [1]

Beginning in Africa, large shipments of slaves were taken across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold in the Americas (North and South America and The Caribbean) for working on plantations.

These ships that offloaded the slaves would transport products like tobacco, cotton, and sugar from the plantations for sale in Europe. And from Europe, these ships would transport manufactured goods like guns, rum, iron, and cloth that would be exchanged for gold and slaves.

While the cooperation of African kings and merchants helped capture most slaves from the interior of Western Africa, the Europeans organized occasional military campaigns to capture them.

The African kings would be given different trade goods in return, like horses, brandy, textiles, cowry shells (served as money), beads, and guns. When the kingdoms of West Africa were organizing their militaries into professional armies, these guns were a vital trade commodity.

The Decline

Having lasted just about 150 years, the Songhai empire began to shrink because of internal political struggles and civil wars, and its mineral wealth tempted invaders. [2]

Once the army of Morocco (one of its territories) revolted to capture its gold mines and the sub-Saharan gold trade, it led to a Moroccan invasion, and the Songhai Empire collapsed in 1591.

Anarchy in 1612 resulted in the fall of the Songhai cities, and what was the greatest empire in African history disappeared.

Not only did the Songhai Empire keep expanding territory right until its collapse, but it also had widespread trade along the Trans-Saharan route.

Once it dominated the Saharan caravan trade, horses, sugar, glassware, fine cloth, and rocksalt were transported to Sudan in exchange for slaves, skins, kola nuts, spices, ivory, and gold. [5]

It was the biggest empire in West African history, spreading from the Senegal River in the West to central Mali in the east, with Gao as its capital.

Songhai, African Empire, 15-16th Century | South African History Online (sahistory.org.za)
The Songhai Empire (studentsofhistory.com)
Songhai Empire – World History Encyclopedia
Songhai Empire – Wikipedia
Songhai Empire Rise & Decline, Trading industry, Facts & Worksheets (schoolhistory.co.uk)
Rise Of The Songhai Empire (afrikaiswoke.com)

The Biggest Empire You Never Knew Existed

A political prisoner escapes, takes over two cities, and creates one of the largest empires of the medieval period. And you never knew he, or it, existed. Later hailed as a tyrannical heretic, he’s deposed, and another major dynasty takes possession of the kingdom he created.

With names like the city of Gao and the Songhai empire, you might think we’re talking about Asia. You’d be wrong. Nestled in the heart of Africa, stretching from the continent’s west coast into the Sahara desert, the Songhai Empire was impressive in size, wealth, and military power. It was the largest empire in the Islamic world at the time, and the largest empire in African history. But it was destined to fall…

The Songhai Empire under Sunni Ali.

Origins of an Empire

The Gow, Do, and Sorko peoples lived along the Niger River and used the regions’ resources to survive. They hunted crocodile and hippopotamus, fished, farmed, and transported goods along the water way. Fertile areas are prized in this harsh desert environment, however, and it wasn’t long until a horseback-riding group came and conquered these peaceful groups. Years passed, life settled into a comfortable routine, their languages blended, and the Songhai people emerged as a unified group.

The two dominant ruling dynasties that are remembered for their time as rulers of the Songhai are the Sunni (aka Sonni) dynasty, and the Askiya (aka Askia) dynasty. Early records of the Songhai suggest that two more dynasties who called their leaders maliks and zuwa or za likely rule the Songhai in the 10 th -12 th centuries.

NOAA image of a forest in modern-day Mali’s Sahel region.

Conflict with Mali

The Songhai quickly got rich. As the Tuareg people move south from Morocco for trade, the Niger River region’s gold, salt, ivory, kola nuts, leather, and dates, gained fame. The Songhai slave trade was also heavy and profitable. The nearby Mali Empire was stronger, and coveted the Songhai city-kingdom of Gao.

They attacked, conquered, and held the city for nearly 150 years, but they did not destroy the Songhai Empire , or the Sunni dynasty. In fact, for much of that time, the Songhai were still largely independent, and although they paid taxes to Mali, the kings of Songhai actively rebelled.

Sunni Ali Creates an Empire

This incredible leader held control of the Songhai Empire from 1464-1492. Rumor has it that as a young man he was a political prisoner of the Mali empire or, alternatively, raised by his mother’s people, the Faru. He spent some of his young adulthood with his father, Madogo. But Mali was in trouble, and their empire was collapsing. Throughout the period they controlled the Songhai empire, Songhai identity held strong.

While Mali collapsed, the 14th leader of the Songhai died and Sunni Ali took his place. During his reign, the city-kingdom of Gao absorbed much of what had been the Mali Empire, and included two of the region’s major trade cities, Timbuktu and Djenne, as well as much of the land along the Niger River, and a wide expanse of the Sahel and parts of the Sahara.

He died in 1492, but the causes are … questioned. Although some accounts claim he died crossing the Niger River, oral traditions favor the idea that his nephew, Muhammed Ture, killed him. Sunni Ali practiced African Animism, but professed Islam. This inconsistency may well be what led to his demise. Muhammed Ture was a devout Muslim, as history would soon note.

A boat on the Niger River.

The End of the Sunnis and the Rise of Askias

Sunni Ali’s long era of impressive expansion is directly contrasted with his son’s short reign of less than a year. He was challenged almost immediately by the same Muhammed Ture who oral historians suggest killed his father, and he lost. The basis for the challenge was Sunni Baru’s reputation as a poor Mus

Muhammed Ture gained in influence quickly, and his dynasty quickly gained the title Askia (powerful) for rulers. Under him, the land of the Songhai Empire rapidly returned to its course of expansionism, trade with Europe and Asia flourished, and a cultural revolution took place that brought Islam to prominence in the region. This leader’s rule wasn’t based on Islamic law, however – he built a bureaucratic government, created schools, standardized trade, improved the tax system, and after a long and powerful reign, was overthrown by his son in 1528.

And then, The End…

Karma being what it is, the Askias didn’t rule for very long. In fact, by 1591 they were defeated by Moroccan forces who came armed with gunpowder weaponry. The Moroccans had powerful forces, but weren’t equipped to rule the region. They won the war, but lost control of the region. In just a few short years, one of Africa’s most impressive Empires collapsed into ruin. The stories of the Songhai Empire aren’t often told, and most of what remains of their impact on West Africa lies buried in the sands of the Sahara and the dry, harsh seasons of the Sahel.

africa Medieval history

Christina Boyes

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The trans-saharan gold trade (7th–14th century).

Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2000

Gold Trade and the Kingdom of Ancient Ghana Around the fifth century, thanks to the availability of the camel, Berber-speaking people began crossing the Sahara Desert. From the eighth century onward, annual trade caravans followed routes later described by Arabic authors with minute attention to detail. Gold, sought from the western and central Sudan, was the main commodity of the trans-Saharan trade. The traffic in gold was spurred by the demand for and supply of coinage. The rise of the Soninke empire of Ghana appears to be related to the beginnings of the trans-Saharan gold trade in the fifth century.

From the seventh to the eleventh century, trans-Saharan trade linked the Mediterranean economies that demanded gold—and could supply salt—to the sub-Saharan economies, where gold was abundant. Although local supply of salt was sufficient in sub-Saharan Africa, the consumption of Saharan salt was promoted for trade purposes. In the eighth and ninth centuries, Arab merchants operating in southern Moroccan towns such as Sijilmasa bought gold from the Berbers, and financed more caravans. These commercial transactions encouraged further conversion of the Berbers to Islam . Increased demand for gold in the North Islamic states, which sought the raw metal for minting, prompted scholarly attention to Mali and Ghana, the latter referred to as the “Land of Gold.” For instance, geographer al-Bakri described the eleventh-century court at Kumbi Saleh, where he saw gold-embroidered caps, golden saddles, shields and swords mounted with gold, and dogs’ collars adorned with gold and silver. The Soninke managed to keep the source of their gold (the Bambuk mines, most notably) secret from Muslim traders. Yet gold production and trade were important activities that undoubtedly mobilized hundreds of thousands of African people. Leaders of the ancient kingdom of Ghana accumulated wealth by keeping the core of pure metal, leaving the unworked native gold to be marketed by their people.

Gold Trade and the Mali Empire By 1050, Ghana was strong enough to assume control of the Islamic Berber town of Audaghost. By the end of the twelfth century, however, Ghana had lost its domination of the western Sudan gold trade. Trans-Saharan routes began to bypass Audaghost, expanding instead toward the newly opened Bure goldfield. Soso, the southern chiefdom of the Soninke, gained control of Ghana as well as the Malinke, the latter eventually liberated by Sundiata Keita, who founded the Mali empire . Mali rulers did not encourage gold producers to convert to Islam , since prospecting and production of the metal traditionally depended on a number of beliefs and magical practices that were alien to Islam. In the fourteenth century, cowrie shells were introduced from the eastern coast as local currency, but gold and salt remained the principal mediums of long-distance trade.

The flow of sub-Saharan gold to the northeast probably occurred in a steady but small stream. Mansa Musa’s arrival in Cairo carrying a ton of the metal (1324–25) caused the market in gold to crash, suggesting that the average supply was not as great. Undoubtedly, some of this African gold was also used in Western gold coins. African gold was indeed so famous worldwide that a Spanish map of 1375 represents the king of Mali holding a gold nugget ( Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris ). When Mossi raids destroyed the Mali empire, the rising Songhai empire relied on the same resources. Gold remained the principal product in the trans-Saharan trade, followed by kola nuts and slaves. The Moroccan scholar Leo Africanus, who visited Songhai in 1510 and 1513, observed that the governor of Timbuktu owned many articles of gold, and that the coin of Timbuktu was made of gold without any stamp or superscription.

Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade (7th–14th Century Century).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gold/hd_gold.htm (October 2000)

Additional Essays by Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas

Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ La Venta: Sacred Architecture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ La Venta: Stone Sculpture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Monte Albán .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Monte Albán: Sacred Architecture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Monte Albán: Stone Sculpture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Teotihuacan: Mural Painting .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Teotihuacan: Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Valdivia Figurines .” (October 2004)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Hopewell (1–400 A.D.) .” (October 2002)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Indian Knoll (3000–2000 B.C.) .” (October 2003)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Poverty Point (2000–1000 B.C.) .” (October 2003)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ African Rock Art .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ African Rock Art: Tassili-n-Ajjer (?8000 B.C.–?) .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ African Rock Art: The Coldstream Stone .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Apollo 11 (ca. 25,500–23,500 B.C.) and Wonderwerk (ca. 8000 B.C.) Cave Stones .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Monumental Stelae of Aksum (3rd–4th Century) .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Tikal .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Tikal: Sacred Architecture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Tikal: Stone Sculpture .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Art and the Fulani/Fulbe People .” (October 2002)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Great Zimbabwe (11th–15th Century) .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Ife Pre-Pavement and Pavement Era (800–1000 A.D.) .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Foundations of Aksumite Civilization and Its Christian Legacy (1st–8th Century) .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Ife (from ca. 6th Century) .” (originally published October 2000, last revised September 2014)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Inland Niger Delta .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Lydenburg Heads (ca. 500 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Nok Terracottas (500 B.C.–200 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Empires of the Western Sudan .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana Empire .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Empires of the Western Sudan: Mali Empire .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Empires of the Western Sudan: Songhai Empire .” (October 2000)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Mangarevan Sculpture .” (October 2003)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Tahiti .” (October 2003)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Cave Sculpture from the Karawari .” (October 2003)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ The Fulani/Fulbe People .” (October 2002)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Great Serpent Mound .” (October 2002)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Ancient American Jade .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Jade in Costa Rica .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ Jade in Mesoamerica .” (October 2001)
Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “ La Venta .” (October 2001)

Related Essays

The Empires of the Western Sudan: Mali Empire
Gold in Asante Courtly Arts
Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa
Antelopes and Queens: Bambara Sculpture from the Western Sudan : A Groundbreaking Exhibition at the Museum of Primitive Art, New York, 1960
African Influences in Modern Art
Drawing in the Middle Ages
Egyptian Red Gold
The Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana Empire
Gold in Ancient Egypt
Inland Niger Delta
James Cox (ca. 1723–1800): Goldsmith and Entrepreneur
The Magic of Signs and Patterns in North African Art
Trade Relations among European and African Nations
Tutsi Basketry
Eastern and Southern Africa, 1000–1400 A.D.
Eastern and Southern Africa, 1400–1600 A.D.
Guinea Coast, 1400–1600 A.D.
Western and Central Sudan, 1000–1400 A.D.
Western and Central Sudan, 1400–1600 A.D.
Western North Africa (The Maghrib), 1000–1400 A.D.
Western North Africa (The Maghrib), 1400–1600 A.D.
Western North Africa (The Maghrib), 500–1000 A.D.
Western Sudan, 500–1000 A.D.
The Empire of Mali and the Trans-Saharan Gold Trade
Cartography
Eastern Africa
Islamic Art
Islamic Art in the Early Period
Islamic Art in the Later Period
Islamic Art in the Medieval Period
North Africa
Numismatics
Western and Central Sudan
Western North Africa (The Maghrib)

Society and Politics
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Biographies
Publications

Grade 10 - Topic 1: The world around 1600

Topic 1: The world around 1600

What was the world like around 1600?

Europe is considered as one of the world’s major super powers which played a significant role in Southern Africa’s development. For topic one, which is The World Around 1600, the intention of this lesson is to provide learners with a broad comparative overview of some of the major empires, which includes China as a world power in the 14th and 15th centuries; Songhai, an African empire during the 15th and 16th Centuries, and the Indian Mughal Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. This topic also includes a discussion on the European societal structures during the above mentioned time periods.

Topic Requirements as per CAPS Curriculum

Background and focus

At this stage, it was not at all clear that Europe would come to dominate the world. The intention is to provide a broad comparative overview of some of the major empires at this time with Europe, which was not an empire. Societies were dynamic and undergoing change - although the change was slower at that stage than after European expansion (Topic 2). In all units, include the role of women in society. The studies of the three empires should include accounts of the first contacts with Europe before conquests, when relationships were still balanced.

This consists of a broad comparative overview:

China: A world power in the 14th and 15th centuries (1368 to 1644)

The Ming dynasty : government and society.
Travel and trade: ship building, navigation (compass), Chinese mariners mapping the world; trade and influence along the Asian sea routes' treasure fleet expeditions of Zheng He from 1405 to 1433.
Scientific and cultural achievements of the Ming dynasty
China looks inwards after 1433.

Songhai: an African Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries (around 1340 to 1591)

The Songhai Empire under Sonni Ali: government and society.
Travel and trade in Songhai at the height of its power (Arab, Italian and Jewish merchants at Timbuktu)
Learning and culture.
Fall of the Empire: Moroccan invasion of 1591.

India: Mughal (1525 to 1858)

The Mughal Empire : government and society.
Trade in the Indian Ocean and Islamic world.
Astronomy and technology (seamless and celestial globe).
Architecture in the 16th and 17th centuries: the Taj Mahal
Britain and the end of the Mughal Empire.

European Societies

Feudal societies
The black death: plagues and the consequences.
Travel and trade across Europe and the Baltic Sea.
Art, science and technology: the Renaissance.
Changes in Feudalism : emerging middle class.

Key terms and definitions for this topic

Ancient : Belonging to a period of history that is thousands of years in the past.

Bureaucracy : A system of government in which there are a large number of state officials who are not elected.

Civilization : A society, its culture and its way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

Colonize : To take control of an area or a country that is not your own, especially using force, and send people from your own country to live there.

Conquest : The act of taking control of a country, city, etc. by force.

Empire : A group of countries or states that are controlled by one ruler or government.

Expansion : An act of increasing or making something increase in size, amount or importance.

Explorer : A person who travels to unknown places in order to find out more about them.

Independence : Freedom from political control by other countries.

Indigenous : Belonging to a particular place rather than coming to it from somewhere else.

Kingdom : A country ruled by a king or queen; an area controlled by a particular person or where a particular thing or idea is important.

Merchants : A person who buys and sells goods in large quantities, especially one who imports and exports goods.

Monopoly :The complete control of trade in particular goods or the supply of a particular service; a type of goods or a service that is controlled in this way.

Prosperity : The state of being successful, especially in making money.

Settler : A person who goes to live in a new country or region.

Slavery : The state of being a slave; the practice of having slaves.

Smelt : To heat and melt ore (rock that contains metal) in order to obtain the metal it contains.

Trade : A person who goes to live in a new country or region.

Source: Oxford (2014), Oxford Learners Dictionary , from Oxford [online] available at http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ [Accessed: 30 March 2020]|

South African History Online (2014), The World Around 1600 , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/world-around-1600 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

South African History Online (2014), China 14-15th Century , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/china-14-15th-century [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Macro History and World Timeline (2005), 16th Century Timeline: 1501-1600 , from MacroHistory and World Timeline [online] available at http://www.fsmitha.com/time/ce16.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Bishops (2014), The World Around 1600 , from Bishops [online] available at http://learning.bishops.org.za/history/grade-10/the-world-around-1600/ [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2000), Europe and the Islamic World, 1600-1800 , from The Metropolitan Museum of Art [online] available at http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/erpr/hd_erpr.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Infoplease (2000), 1600-1699 (A.D.) World History, from infoplease [online] available at http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001225.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Mother Earth Travel (2014), History of South Africa , from motherearthtravel [online] available at http://motherearthtravel.com/history/south-africa/history-3.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Brebru (2014), Renaissance Interactive Time Line , from brebru [online] available at http://brebru.com/musicroom/renaissance/timeline1450 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

The British Library (2014), World Around 1600 , from The British Library [online] available at http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/trading/world1.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Fleurdelis (2014), Timetable of Historic Events , from Fleurdelis [online] available at http://www.fleurdelis.com/timetbl2.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

EndMemo (2015), Major World Events in 17th Century , from EndMemo [online] available at http://www.endmemo.com/events/1600.php [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Boundless (2015), The New World 1492-1600 , from boundless [online] available at https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s-history-textbook/the-new-world-1492-1600-2/ [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2000), China 1600-1800 A.D., from The Metropolitan Museum of Art [online] available at http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=09 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

South African History Online (2014), Colonial History of Cape Town , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/cape-town/english-settlement [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Kid Inf0 (2014), Colonial Life , from kidinfo [online[ available at http://www.kidinfo.com/american_history/colonization_colonial_life.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

China Highlights (2015), China History , from Chinahighlights [online] available at http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/culture/china-history.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Encyclopedia Britannica (2015), Songhai , from Encyclopedia Britannica [online] available at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/554419/Songhai [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Black Past (2007), Songhai Empire (ca. 1375-1591), from Blackpast [online] available at http://www.blackpast.org/gah/songhai-empire-ca-1375-1591 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

South African History Online (2014), India Mughal Empire: 16-19th Century , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/india-mughal-empire-16-19th-century [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

BBC (2009), Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s), from BBC [online] available at

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

South African History Online (2014), European Societies , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/european-societies [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Boundless (2014), The Expansion of Europe, from Boundless [online] available at https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s-history-textbook/the-new-world-1492-1600-2/the-expansion-of-europe-37/ [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

South African History Online (2014), Conquest 1600s-1800s , from South African History Online [online] available at http://www.sahistory.org.za/conquest-1600s-1800s [Accessed: 17 January 2015]

Hamblin, W. J. (2006), Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History, [online] available at https://books.google.co.za/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Burton, E. D (2007), The World of English Artisans and Traders: 1600””1750 , [online] available at

https://books.google.co.za/books?id=J1SUIH9MBlEC [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Curtis, K. & Hansen, V. (2013), Voyages in World History, Volume 1 to 1600, [online] available at

https://books.google.co.za/books?id=9UUWAAAAQBAJ [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Rosner, L. & Theibault, J. (2000), A Short History of Europe, 1600-1815: Search for a Reasonable World, [online] available at

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Chang, C.S. (2006) The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. - A, Part 157 , [online] available at

https://books.google.co.za/books?id=IpP5uMHSQ0AC [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Paren, E., Shillington, k., Stacey, G., & Steele, P. (2001), People of Africa , [online] available at https://books.google.co.za/books?id=VlAOktBjoZwC [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Dale, S. F. (2002), Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600-1750, [online] available at

https://books.google.co.za/books?id=GqEWw_54uVUC&pg=PA148&dq=1600+india+mughal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kJW3VNX-H8bnUoGNgpgJ&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=1600%20india%20mughal&f=false [Accessed: 17 January 2015]

JABZY (2014), 5 Chinese Empires You Should Know, from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiECEu4Ikog [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

New Chinese Paladin (2008), Chinese Empires (1/9), from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b-Ybw4KvqW4 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Sabrina (2012), The Songhai Empire , from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11XUwCcC9tw [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Bring Back Black (2008), The Journey of Songhai People Promo , from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLXetrKpIME [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Abbie W (2009), The Kingdom of Songhai And African Societies , from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8p4RLupmeU [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

MRINAL813 (2013), Bharat EK Khoj Episode 35 Aurangzeb Part 1, from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhHpBe4FjNY [Accessed: January 2015]|

Mad Monarchist (2013), The Last Mughal Emperor in India , from Youtube [online] available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMWrkyRvWcg [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

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Images/ Maps

World Atlas (2014), China, from Worldatlas [online] available at http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/cn.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

SACU (2001), Chinese History Chart , from sacu [online] available at http://www.sacu.org/histchart.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Zonu (2003), The Spread of Colonization 1600-1700 , from zonu [online] available at http://www.zonu.com/detail-en/2009-11-05-10846/The-Spread-of-Colonization-1600-1700.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2000), Ming Dynasty (1368”“1644) , from The Metropolitan Museum of Art [online] available at

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ming/hd_ming.htm [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

Blog Spot (2012), U.S Slave , from blogspot [online] available at http://usslave.blogspot.com/2012_02_01_archive.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]|

The Ultimate History Project (2014), Belgian Colonial Education Policy: A Poor Foundation for Stability, from Theultimatehistoryproject [online] available at

http://www.ultimatehistoryproject.com/belgian-congo.html [Accessed: 17 January 2015]

Oral History

IOL news (2013), How I Escaped Child Slavery in Sudan , from IOLnews [online] available at http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/how-i-escaped-child-slavery-in-sudan-1.1484070 [Accessed: 17 January 2015]

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While knights rode around medieval Europe, the three great empires of West Africa prospered through unimaginable wealth. Ghana, Mali and Songhai controlled more gold and conducted more global trade than any European power at this time in history.

Three Early West African Empires

(Note: These historic empires are not the countries bearing the same names today. Also note: "CE" stands for "Common Era" and, like "AD," measures the years as counted by Christian scholars from the birth of Jesus.)

Ghana (Wagadu) – 300 CE -1235 CE

Traditionally known as Wagadu, the empire of Ghana was the first of the great Western African Empires. Situated further north than the modern-day Republic of Ghana, this was the smallest but longest surviving of these three historic domains. Located between two major rivers, the Niger and the Senegal, and bordered by the Sahara to the east, Ghana became the center of trade between the Arabs and Berbers in the northern regions and other African societies to the south. Bringing down salt from northern Africa, the Arabs and Berbers traded in Ghana for gold and ivory.

Empire of Ghana (Wagadu)

Ghana’s wealth grew through a double taxation system placed on their most valuable commodity, gold. People were taxed when bringing gold in and again when taking it out of the empire. Ghana also profited from the exportation of gold. Gold dust was the main currency of the time. Salt, however, is essential for human survival and rare the further south ones travels. As the desire and need for further trade grew, the nomadic Berbers created the western trans-Saharan caravan road. Thanks to this intricate highway system, Mediterranean traders could travel south to African strongholds like Ghana to exchange their salt for ivory and gold.

This 1985 Azalai salt caravan continues the tradition of trans-Saharan trade.

Leaders in Ghana, the Soninke, managed to keep their main source of gold, the Bambuk mines, a secret from the foreign traders. The Soninke kept the core of pure metal for themselves, accumulating great wealth, and left the unworked native gold to be marketed by the common people. Historians believe this international trade route mobilized hundreds of thousands of Africans, with the gold of Ghana reaching far away European and Asian countries.

The decay of this empires developed due to political turmoil from within and invaders who penetrated Ghana’s boarders and sacked their great cities. Scholars tell us there were invasions from the North by groups like the Almoravids, as well as by the short lived Sosso Kingdom. Sundiata Keita, founder of the Mali empire, also took advantage of the weakness of Ghana. Changing trading routes played a major role in its decline as well, as did civil wars due to religious differences. Many people in Ghana rejected Islam, preferring their traditional belief systems.

For further readings on the political systems and major leaders of Ghana see Historian Phillip Curtin’s work titled African History , the Cambridge History of Africa , and the UNESCO series on the General History of Africa (GHA).

Mali – 1230 CE – 1460 CE

Out of the ashes of Ghana came the next great civilization of its time –– and the richest kingdom ever to exist in world history — the Mali Empire. The roots of Mali start within ancient Ghana and the Malinke inhabitants of Kangaba, who served as middlemen trading gold to foreigners. Sundiata Keita rose up from his small kingdom of Kangaba, won the people’s support, conquered the last stronghold of Ancient Ghana, and began the reign of the Mali Empire. His successors expanded the empire to envelope the trading towns of Timbuktu and Gao and northern regions such as Taghaza, containing the highly valuable salt deposits. Mali swallowed up the wealth of Ghana and expanded on their practices with great success.

In 1312 CE, Musa the First or Mansa (meaning King or Emperor) Musa took the throne of Mali. He had an army of over 100,000 including a cavalry of more than 10,000 men. This army was a formidable fighting force, which enabled Mansa Musa to double the size of his kingdom. He is remembered most notably as the richest man who ever lived.

Mansa Musa, the richest man in history.

Ruling the gold center of the world, Mansa Musa’s wealth is incomprehensible. Being a devout Muslim, Mansa Musa traveled across the continent and brought back scholars and architects. These experts would establish universities and mosques. His 4,000 mile pilgrimage to Mecca gave him the chance to show his generosity to the common people. Mansa Musa’s gifts of gold to common people throughout his hajj destabilized the entire Egyptian economy. His great generosity literally put him on the map. In 1375 Mansa Musa was portrayed on the Catalan Atlas, one of the most important world maps of Medieval Europe. He was depicted with a golden scepter and crown, seated upon a golden throne.

The Catalan Atlas was one of the most important world maps of its day. Mansa Musa of Mali, as one of the world's most important leaders, was pictured on it offering some of his gold.

However, Mansa Musa contributed far more to the world than gold. In an early form of globalization, Mansa Musa sent ambassadors across the continent of Africa. In Mali he cultivated "a place of splendor, wealth, and sophistication," attracting European and Middle Eastern travelers alike. Mansa Musa also modernized the great city of Timbuktu, building public schools, universities, and mosques. These include the legendary Djinguereber, the oldest mosque in Timbuktu, built in 1327, which still stands today. It holds one of the world’s oldest universities still in existence.

Unfortunately, emperors who followed would lose control of several smaller states within Mali, causing disunity, revolt, and the erosion of central power. As Mali rose from the fall of Ghana, so Songhai would assert its independent power over the region, emerging as the next great Western African Empire.

Songhai (also spelled Songhay) – 1460 CE – 1600 CE

While Mali quickly fell apart due to rampant disunity, a new king reigned. Sonni Ali ruled Songhai from 1464 to 1492. The Songhai kingdom was a small contemporary state of Ghana but later rose to defeat its Malian conquerers. The Songhai controlled the trade on the Niger river at the time of the Mali Empire. Through endless campaigns for expansion, Songhai became the largest of the three great empires of Western Africa –– and larger than all of continental Europe. The Songhai kingdom under Ali had the only naval fleet in West Africa. Ali was a military tyrant, also referred to as Sunni the Merciless, intolerant of any resistance to his rule. He is known for having starved the citizens of renowned trading town of Djenné into submission. These brutal tactics explain how the empire grew so large in such a short amount of time, also suggesting why the empire would last just as briefly. Sonni Ali is also known, however, for his wise economic decisions, reviving the ancient trade routes of empires past. Under his reign, vast commercial cities like Djenné, Gao, and Timbuktu became great centers of learning and scholarship.

King Sonni Ali (as portrayed by the African Heritage Foundation)

Another proficient ruler of the Songhai Empire was Askia the Great. Known for encouraging international trade between Songhai and both Europe and Asia, Askia was also known for his religious tolerance. Like the rulers before him of both Songhai and Mali, Askia the Great was a devout Muslim. He opened religious schools and mosques across the empire. Oral histories relate that he did not force Islam on his people or punish those who chose to believe otherwise. Simultaneously orchestrating a strategy of expansion and consolidation, Askia the Great did not form his domain along traditional Islamic lines. He instead instituted a system of bureaucratic government unparalleled at this time in Western Africa. The Songhai Empire possessed some of Africa’s earliest organized taxation systems and trade regulations, continuing the ancestral trade routes of gold, ivory, and salt. Among Askia’s well-known economic and military accomplishments is his less well-known interest in and influence on the development of the field of astronomy.

By the 17 th century satellite kingdoms along the borders began to rebel, and civil wars developed across the empire. The central power of the emperor also fell into constant strife as decedents fought over the right to rule. With the empire splintering apart from within, the neighboring region of Morocco decided to take advantage and launched an invasion. Despite having a tenth of the manpower, the Moroccan muskets far outperformed the traditional spears and arrows of the Songhai military. Moroccan leader Ahmad al-Mansur al-Dhahabi, known as ‘the Golden Conqueror,’ seized the Songhai treasure. He eventually absorbed all of the empire into a Moroccan province, dissolving the last of the Great Western African Empires.

In Conclusion

Like many historic empires, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, did not survive into modern times. However, they were fundamental in shaping the world we live in today. Many European, Middle Eastern, and Asian strongholds would not have prospered without the trade from these African Empires. These African societies not only influenced the global economy, they also shaped the world's art, culture, and religion through international trade. These empires provided protection and resources to many great African and Muslim scholars, thereby supporting the development of science, philosophy, and other forms of knowledge across the globe.

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Rebecca Schnabel is a graduate of UW-Milwaukee’s Masters of Public History and Museum Studies Certificate programs. She strives to cultivate a sense of community through engaging endeavors that connect history with the present, particularly through empowering the general public to apply their own agency while exploring exhibitions on social justice. Rebecca’s passion does not reside in one specific historical era or geographic location, but instead in illuminating underrepresented histories. Her specialties include interpretation, collections management, and exhibit design.

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