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DOT Chief: Philippines surpasses yearend target with 5.45 million int’l visitor arrivals in 2023, int’l visitor receipts surge at PHP482.54 billion

Manila, Philippines —The year 2023 is a win for the Philippine tourism industry as it welcomed more than five million international visitor arrivals from January 1 to December 31, 2023, recording more than PHP480 billion in international tourism receipts, according to Department of Tourism (DOT) Secretary Christina Garcia Frasco.

According to the monitoring data of the DOT, a total of 5,450,557 international visitors entered the country from January 1 to December 31, 2023, of which 91.80 percent or the bulk of international arrivals recorded at 5,003,475 are foreigners. The remaining 8.20 percent or 447,082 are overseas Filipinos.

The new record is around 650,000 higher than its target of 4.8 million international visitors projected to visit the country for the entire year.

South Korea retains its top spot as the country’s main source of international visitors, getting 26.41 percent of the pie which delivered 1,439,336 foreign tourists. It was followed by the United States with 903,299 tourists (16.57 percent) visiting the country; then Japan with 305,580 (5.61 percent); Australia with 266,551 (4.89 percent); and China with 263,836 (4.84 percent).

Other foreigners who visited the country from other top source markets after China were from Canada, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, and Malaysia.

Surge in International Tourism Receipts

The tourism chief likewise emphasized that the country’s local tourism industry is recovering faster than expected.

The country’s international tourism receipts have surged at an estimate of PHP482.54 billion from January 1 to December 31, 2023. This is higher by 124.87 percent compared with the PHP214.58 billion estimated visitor receipts from the same period last year. In 2019 or pre-pandemic period, the DOT recorded PHP482.15 billion in international tourism receipts.

The Philippines has also reached an estimated 66 percent recovery rate for its all-time high international visitor arrivals achieved in 2019.

By 2024, the DOT is targeting a baseline target of 7.7 million international visitor arrivals.

“My deepest appreciation goes to every tourism stakeholder, collaborative partner, and passionate contributor who propelled our shared aspirations forward. Under President Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, Jr.’s guiding vision and leadership, tourism has become a pivotal force driving our nation’s economic resurgence,” said Secretary Frasco,

“These numbers speak very well of the performance of the tourism industry under the Marcos Administration. Since we took office, we have set our goals for the industry not only in terms of international visitor arrivals but most importantly, the number of Filipinos, including their families, who will benefit from the opportunities generated by our constant and continuous efforts to make the industry prosper more than what we have aimed for. We assure the President, including our partners from the public and private sectors, that we will continue to realize the vision of this administration to make tourism a catalyst for economic growth and resurgence,” she added. 

Realization of NTDP goals

In May 2023, President Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. approved the National Tourism Development Plan (NTDP) 2023 to 2028, the administration’s blueprint and development framework for the tourism industry, officials said Tuesday.

It contains the DOT’s seven strategic goals formulated under the helm of Secretary Frasco, which is the improvement of tourism infrastructure and accessibility; cohesive and comprehensive digitalization and connectivity; enhancement of overall tourist experience; equalization of tourism product development and promotion; diversification of the tourism portfolio through multidimensional tourism; maximization of domestic and international tourism; and strengthening tourism governance through close collaborations with national and local government units and stakeholders.

Flagship Projects and Programs of the DOT in 2023

On the directive of Secretary Frasco, the DOT embarked on an aggressive campaign to realize the Marcos Administration’s vision of making the Philippines a tourism powerhouse in Asia.

Among others, the DOT successfully turned over 10 Tourist Rest Areas (TRAs) in strategic locations nationwide, with 18 more to be built this 2024. A flagship program of the Marcos Administration, the TRAs are equipped with facilities such as work and charging stations, information, and pasalubong centers, and clean restrooms and showers, a lounge area, and a breastfeeding room.

In less than two years of office, the DOT was able to complete 158 kilometers of roads leading to tourism destinations across the country in a bid to increase connectivity in tourist destinations through its Tourism Road Infrastructure Program (TRIP) in collaboration with the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH).

To further provide convenience to tourists in terms of mobility while discovering destinations around the Philippine capital, two Hop-On Hop-Off (HOHO) Travel by The Hubs were also inaugurated in the cities of Manila and Makati. Four additional hubs are also planned to be launched with six local LGUs in Metro Manila as partners.

The DOT is also expanding the country’s cruise tourism portfolio by receiving a total of 125 cruise calls in 2023.

The DOT also launched the country’s first Tourist Assistance Call Center, a centralized multi-platform assistance center that serves as a hotline and one-stop shop for local and foreign tourists. Since its launching in October, a total of 2,497 transactions have been made as of December 31, 2023.

An aggregate of 33,435 app downloads have also been recorded since the launching of the integrated Travel Philippines App, a project of the DOT and its marketing arm, Tourism Promotions Board (TPB) Philippines.

Meanwhile, 21,195 tourism-related jobs were also offered at the Trabaho, Turismo, Asenso Job Fairs–Trabaho Turismo Asenso Philippine Tourism Job Fairs, a collaborative effort by the DOT and the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE).

With the Philippines being known as one of the most hospitable countries in the world, 126,343 tourism workers were trained for the Filipino Brand of Service Excellence (FBSE) as of December 31, 2023, surpassing the initial 100,000 set by no less than the tourism chief.

Initiated by the DOT, the FBSE training program is rooted in the 7M’s of core values that Filipinos are widely known for: Malikhain, Makatao, Makakalikasan, Makabansa, Masayahin, May Bayanihan, and May Pag-asa, and designed to promote service excellence in all tourism-related establishments.

Generating more sales leads

Abundant tourism revenue from international and local business-to-business and promotional events also concluded in 2023 for the Philippine tourism industry.

An estimated PHP6.317 billion total sales leads have been delivered through the DOT’s attached agency, Tourism Promotions Board (TPB) Philippines, which has been actively carrying out marketing and promotions, mounting  of international and domestic travel fairs, and participating in major expos locally and abroad.

“Looking ahead to 2024, our commitment to the transformation of Philippine tourism is unwavering. Guided by our National Tourism Development Plan 2023-2028, we are poised for a thriving tourism landscape, evident in surpassing our targets in international and domestic arrivals and receipts, fostering economic prosperity and further job creation for our people,”  said Secretary Frasco.

The New Philippines

Reintroducing The Philippines into the global tourism arena, the country , represented by Secretary Frasco, has been elected Vice President of the 25th General Assembly of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), a prestigious global position last held by the country more than two decades ago.  Likewise, The  Philippines, with Secretary Frasco’s representation, was also elected as Chair of the Commission for East Asia and the Pacific allowing the country to host the Joint Regional Meetings of the Committee for East Asia and the Pacific and South Asia in Cebu in 2024.

Consistent top-of-mind destination 

The past year for the tourism industry may have been a mix of challenges and successes, but as recognized by preeminent award-giving bodies and publications, the Philippines remains a top-of-mind destination among travelers.

This was signified by the six major accolades from the World Travel Awards (WTA) received by the country as 2023 World’s Leading Dive Destination, World’s Leading Beach Destination, the World’s Leading City Destination for Manila as well as Asia’s Best Cruise Destination, and Asia’s Leading Dive Destination. For the first time, the Philippines also earned the spotlight on its inaugural win for the Global Tourism Resilience Award for demonstrating “global leadership, pioneering vision, and innovation to overcome critical challenges and adversity.”

The Philippines, during the previous year, also garnered more than 15 travel and tourism honors from prestigious award-giving bodies in the categories including diving, beach, cruise, culinary, retirement, and Muslim-friendly tourism, “a testament that the Philippines is indeed an emerging tourism powerhouse.” according to Secretary Frasco.

“The extraordinary journey of Philippine tourism in 2023 saw the world express its LOVE for the Philippines with our country’s rise to global prominence as the World’s Leading Beach and Dive Destination, and Asia’s Best Cruise Destination, among many other accolades. The indomitable spirit of the Filipino has been globally acclaimed with the Philippines receiving the Global Tourism Resilience Award with our country seen as a benchmark for innovation amidst trials and challenges,”  enthused the tourism chief.

“Looking ahead to 2024, our commitment to the transformation of Philippine tourism is unwavering. Guided by our National Tourism Development Plan 2023-2028, we are poised for a thriving tourism landscape, evident in surpassing our targets in international and domestic arrivals and receipts, fostering economic prosperity and further job creation for our people,”  Frasco added.

Published:January 2, 2024

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Department of Tourism

The Department of Tourism provides tourism statistics in PDF format. Available data includes industry performance for travel and tourism and visitor arrival to the Philippines by country of residence. Access the DOT’s data below.

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Tourism in the Philippines

Development of the tourism sector in the philippines from 1995 to 2021.

Revenues from tourism

All data for the Philippines in detail

DOT records 4.08-M tourist arrivals since January 2024

Around 4.08 million foreign tourists arrived in the country since Jan. 1 this year, the Department of Tourism (DOT) disclosed on Wednesday, Sept. 11.

DOT Secretary Christina Garcia-Frasco said the registered tourist arrivals is already half-way of the target 7.7 million for 2024.

"Despite a remaining shortfall of 3.61 million visitors to meet the annual target, the tourism sector shows strong signs of recovery," said Frasco during a forum moderated by former senator Joey Lina at the Manila Hotel on Wednesday.

Tourism revenues from January to August 2024 have reached P362 billion, reflecting an 11.17 percent increase over pre-pandemic levels.

“This financial rebound underscores the ongoing global interest in the archipelago and indicates a full recovery to pre-COVID levels,” Frasco said.

Frasco attributed the DOT's success to innovative strategies that go beyond traditional marketing.

“We are introducing new and immersive experiences that allow visitors to truly connect with the essence of the Philippines,” she noted, highlighting the department's commitment to experiential tourism and its diverse offerings.

Travel mart

In an effort to promote domestic tourism, Frasco encouraged residents to explore local destinations and take advantage of travel expos like the Philippine Travel Mart (PTM) for exclusive discounts on tour packages.

“The PTM has become a crucial platform for showcasing our extensive tourism offerings to international markets and solidifying our status as a top travel destination,” she added.

The PTM, which concluded on Sept. 8, featured approximately 300 exhibitors, including airlines, hotels, resorts, travel agencies, tour operators, and DOT regional offices.

Data from the Philippine Tour Operators Association (PHILTOA) indicates that last year’s PTM facilitated bookings to both popular and emerging destinations within the Philippines, such as the Spratly Islands and the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.

“This year, participants will also present travel packages to international destinations across Asia, the US, Europe, and Australia,” Frasco said.

The 2023 PTM attracted around 60,000 visitors and generated P240 million in sales.

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• Tourist arrivals Philippines 2023, by country of residence

South Korea was the biggest market for international tourists arriving in the Philippines in 2023, with about 1.44 million travelers. Tourists from the United States came in second, reaching roughly 900,000. 

Post-pandemic tourism recovery

The number of tourist arrivals significantly shows signs of recovery in 2023, at 5.5 million, after the disruptions caused by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. During the pandemic, foreign tourist arrivals dropped to merely 1.5 million people from more than eight million in the previous year. Surprisingly, this figure was even lower in 2021, which was just 0.16 million tourists. The tourism department expects to receive 7.7 million international visitors by 2024.

The state of domestic travel

While foreign tourist arrivals struggled during the pandemic, domestic tourism in the Philippines experienced fewer setbacks. In 2022 alone, about 40 million overnight travelers were recorded, the majority of whom were domestic travelers. Cebu Pacific carried the highest number of domestic passengers in 2023, with PAL Express carrying just about half of the former's passenger volume. 

Leading source countries of foreign tourist arrivals in the Philippines in 2023 (in 1,000s)

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Statistics on " Tourism industry in the Philippines "

• Total travel and tourism GDP contribution APAC 2022-2033, by country
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Philippines Tourism Statistics

Philippines ph: international tourism: expenditures, view philippines's philippines ph: international tourism: expenditures from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Philippines PH: International Tourism: Expenditures: % of Total Imports

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Expenditures: for Passenger Transport Items

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Expenditures: for Travel Items

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Number of Arrivals

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Number of Departures

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Receipts

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Receipts: % of Total Exports

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Philippines PH: International Tourism: Receipts: for Passenger Transport Items

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Seizing the Philippines’ tourism potential

T he Philippines is among the top tourist destinations in the world, making tourism a major contributor to its economy. In 2023 , the tourism sector posted an 8.6% contribution to the Philippine Gross Domestic Product. The number not only show tourism’s impact, but it also affirms the potential of the Philippines as a prime hub for meetings, incentive travel, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) tourism industry.

Expanding horizons with MICE

The MICE industry is geared towards planning, organizing, and implementing business events.

Leveraging its status as an outstanding travel hotspot, the Philippines has been actively positioning itself as a premier destination for MICE. Aside from its popular tourism offerings, the country is also home to numerous convention centers located in strategic areas across the nation. May it be for small groups or large-scale receptions, organizers and venue seekers have many options ready for the task.

Some MICE destinations that the Philippines has to offer include Manila, Cebu, Davao, Iloilo, Bacolod, Clark, and the Subic Bay Freeport. These hotspots offer exceptional tourism products and services, as well as vast opportunities for business. Not only that, they also have consistently growing local economies that attract investors.

Other localities are also working hard to seize opportunities in the MICE industry. For instance, Iloilo has been gaining ground by building roads, a modern airport, and multiple commerce spaces in the last two decades. In 2015, it established the Iloilo Convention Center, fostering the growth of the MICE industry in the city.

Central Luzon is not one to get left behind. In fact, the recently concluded Philippine MICE Conference 2024 (MICECON 2024) was held at the SMX Convention Center Clark in Pampanga from July 10 to 12. Following the theme “MICE XD: Xperience Diversified”, the event underscored the significance of technology, inclusion, and diversity in shaping the industry’s future.  Subject experts led discussions and covered topics including artificial intelligence, crisis recovery and reputation management, inclusive event planning, digital marketing and the appeal of in-person experiences, as well as training and upskilling of the tourism workforce.

Spotlight on Clark

This is the second time that Clark hosted the prestigious convention. In her opening message , Tourism Secretary Christina Garcia Frasco said: "Clark’s selection as the host of MICECON 2024 is a recognition of its readiness and potential as a premier MICE destination. The Clark Freeport Zone’s accessibility, state-of-the-art conference venues, and comprehensive support services are very well prepared to welcome all the participants of MICECON 2024.”

It first hosted the event in 2014, an experience which planted the possibilities for its economic future with tourism and MICE. Poised as the ultimate tourism destination in Central Luzon, the 4,400-hectare Clark Freeport Zone was developed with business and tourism as its primary goals.

Location played an important role in its positioning as a prime MICE hub. Strategically situated only 80 kilometers north of Metro Manila, Clark is accessible via the North Luzon Expressway. It also serves as a gateway to Northern and Central Luzon via the Clark International Airport, which currently flies to ten international and six domestic destinations. Being only two to four hours away via air travel to other major Asian destinations, this aerotropolis is also a natural entry point to the Asia Pacific Region.

Infrastructure-wise, Clark is home to an assortment of facilities that are up-to-spec for high-end and IT-enabled industries, aviation, logistics enterprises, and tourism—including MICE. It currently has 80 convention or meeting facilities, 3,608 rooms and villas, and 146 dining establishments. To improve Clark’s portfolio, expansion of existing facilities and construction of new ones are either being planned or already in progress. A train system connecting Clark to its adjacent regions is also underway.

Clark today is the result of years of careful planning and painstaking work by everyone who collaborated for its development—the locals, the government, and the public and private sectors. A showcase of success, Clark leads the way for other localities that also hold the potential to succeed with MICE.

Go for MICE

For our local economies, the MICE industry brings employment opportunities, profit, and business growth. But more importantly in the grander scheme of things, it helps put the Philippines in the global spotlight, opening more opportunities for international trade, as well as knowledge and technology exchanges.

According to Grand View Research, a market research and consulting company based in India and the US, the Asia-Pacific MICE market in 2023 was valued at $183.47 billion, and projections expect it to grow 10% by 2030. This shows that there is much to gain from developing the Philippines’ capability to host the MICE sector.

Acknowledging its valuable contributions, Tourism Secretary Frasco emphasized: "By positioning the Philippines as a premier MICE destination, we foster economic growth and provide invaluable opportunities for our people.”

With sufficient support and collaboration between stakeholders, the future is bright for the Philippines as a premier MICE destination.

*   *   *

M.I.C.E.CON is organized by the Tourism Promotions Board, an attached agency of the Department of Tourism, that is tasked to promote the Philippines as a world-class tourism and MICE destination. The event gathers MICE professionals for an opportunity to learn new global trends in business meetings, to network with other MICE experts, and to explore the host location’s facilities.

This article Seizing the Philippines’ tourism potential was originally published in GMA News Online .

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The Philippine Travel Exchange (PHITEX) 2024, led by the Tourism Promotions Board (TPB), concluded its Travel Exchange (TRAVEX) sessions with P396.2 million in sales leads, up 14.4 percent from P346.32 million last year.

The event, themed “The Power of Collaboration in Tourism,” brought together 115 Philippine sellers and 86 foreign buyers.

TPB chief operating officer Maria Margarita Montemayor Nograles emphasized the importance of collective effort in revitalizing the tourism sector.

“Through the PHITEX Educational Program [PEP] Talk, we explored groundbreaking topics like the circular tourism economy, the power of AI to enhance customer experiences, and our commitment to being an LGBTQIA-friendly destination. TRAVEX also thrives on collaboration, bringing buyers and sellers together for mutual growth. Our mission is clear: advancing tourism through strong partnerships,” she said.

PHITEX also received international recognition as the Public Sector Initiative of the Year for the second consecutive year at the GovMedia Conference and Awards in Singapore.

Nograles said the event focused on pioneering sustainable tourism and highlighted the PHITEX Educational Program’s exploration of topics like the circular tourism economy and AI’s role in enhancing customer experiences.

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• Review Article
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• Published: 10 September 2024

When urban poverty becomes a tourist attraction: a systematic review of slum tourism research

• Tianhan Gui   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6069-3046 1 &
• Wei Zhong 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1178 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Business and management

Over the last two decades, the phenomenon of “slum tourism” and its academic exploration have seen considerable growth. This study presents a systematic literature review of 122 peer-reviewed journal articles, employing a combined approach of bibliometric and content analysis. Our review highlights prominent authors and journals in this domain, revealing that the most cited journals usually focus on tourism studies or geography/urban studies. This reflects a confluence of travel motivations and urban complexities within slum tourism. Through keyword co-occurrence analysis, we identified three primary research areas: the touristic transformation of urban informal settlements, the depiction and valorization of urban poverty, and the socio-economic impacts of slum tourism. This study not only maps the current landscape of research in this area but also identifies existing gaps. It suggests that the economic, social, and cultural effects of slum tourism are areas that require more in-depth investigation in future research endeavors.

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Introduction.

“Slums” are defined by UN-Habitat ( 2006 ) as underdeveloped urban areas lacking in a durable housing, adequate living space, safe water access, sanitation, and tenure security. Emerging from urban growth disparities, these informal settlements have proliferated since the latter half of the 20th century, especially in the Global South’s cities. Despite progress in urban planning and poverty reduction, UN-Habitat ( 2020 ) reports that over a billion people, with 80% in developing regions, still live in such conditions.

Slums undeniably “represent one of the most enduring faces of poverty, inequality, exclusion and deprivation” (UN-Habitat, 2020 , p. 25), necessitating policy intervention. However, the term “slum” is controversial among scholars as it often carries negative connotations, conflating poor housing conditions with the identities of residents (Gilbert, 2007 ). Beyond poverty and disease, it suggests crime and immorality, contributing to a narrative of fear and fascination (Davis, 2006 ; Mayne, 2017 ).

Recent decades have seen a surge in “slum tours” in the Global South, attracting tourists from the affluent North. Driven by complex motives that “consist of a mix of adventurous inquiry and humanitarian ambitions” (Dürr, 2012b , p. 707), tourists from the affluent North desire to glimpse “the other side of the world” (Steinbrink, 2012 , p. 232). This trend has turned guided tours in informal settlements into a booming business in cities like Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, and Nairobi, drawing approximately one million tourists annually (Frenzel, 2016 ).

Modern slum tourism has deep historical roots, originating as “slumming” in Victorian England and early 20th-century America. Rapid urbanization in cities like London and New York created neglected areas, which, to middle and upper-class observers, represented a mysterious and chaotic “other world” (Steinbrink, 2012 ). This perception of danger and uncivilization paradoxically attracted bourgeois curiosity (Frenzel et al. 2015 ).

By the late 1970s, with the surge in international tourism, this localized “slumming” transformed into a global phenomenon. Affluent residents from the Global North began exploring underprivileged urban pockets in the Global South, making these areas tourism hotspots (Freire-Medeiros, 2009 ; Iqani, 2016 ). This trend marked the beginning of modern slum tourism, a practice that took a significant turn in the 1990s in South Africa. Initially focusing on anti-apartheid landmarks in townships like Soweto, Johannesburg (Steinbrink, 2012 ), these tours diversified to other cities, including Rio de Janeiro, Mumbai, and Manila (Frenzel et al. 2015 ). The once sporadic visits to informal settlements have now metamorphosed into well-orchestrated tours, often recommended by travel guidebooks. Today’s travelers can dine at local eateries, visit schools, interact with residents, or even step inside their homes (Frenzel, 2017 ; Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ). The industry has professionalized, with cities in the Global South attracting tourists mainly from the United Kingdom, United States, Germany, and Scandinavia (Frenzel, 2012 ; Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ; Steinbrink, 2012 ).

The burgeoning interest in slum tourism has sparked significant scholarly discourse, particularly in the new millennium. Research in this realm predominantly orbits around the ethical implications of such tourism, its role in mitigating poverty, and the duties of governing bodies in these scenarios. Slum tourism research encompasses various disciplines, including urban studies, tourism and hospitality, and human geography, with a significant proliferation of publications in recent years.

The surge in research has also led to several evaluative studies scrutinizing the breadth and depth of the subject. Frenzel’s ( 2013 ) thematic review, for instance, probed the nexus between slum tourism and poverty alleviation. Given that most slum tours proclaim poverty alleviation as their core intent, Frenzel’s inquiry into the intersection of this mission with tourism was insightful. He also championed the need for a rigorous exploration of the multifaceted valorization of poverty within tourism dynamics. A more expansive review by Frenzel et al. ( 2015 ) delved into various research focuses like the evolution of slum tourism, tourist experiences, operational aspects, economic implications, and so on. Their assessment underscored existing research voids, emphasizing the necessity for more nuanced, comparative studies. Tzanelli ( 2018 ) examined the socio-cultural and political drivers behind tourists’ inclinations towards informal settlements, critically analyzing the epistemological frameworks employed by scholars.

While these reviews have significantly sketched the contours of the discipline, many leaned heavily on conventional literature review techniques—predicated on selected, and at times, circumscribed resources (Petticrew and Roberts, 2008 ). Such manual methodologies, albeit insightful, are prone to biases “during the identification, selection, and synthesis of included studies” (Haddaway et al. 2015 , p. 1956). A systematic literature review, which adheres to rigorous protocols and curtails subjective inclinations, would be more enriching. Such a methodological shift not only offers a panoramic view of pivotal research arguments and deliberations but also illuminates evolving trends and perspectives. The surge in slum tourism literature recently underscores its dynamic nature, necessitating a renewed scrutiny of nascent discussions eluding preceding reviews.

Addressing this research exigency, our current endeavor undertakes a comprehensive examination of a gamut of articles illuminating diverse research angles on slum tourism. Employing both bibliometric and qualitative content analysis techniques, our study dissects 122 journal articles published over the past twenty years. We endeavor to spotlight seminal authors and journals, delineate prevailing themes in slum tourism studies, and carve out prospective trajectories for forthcoming research endeavors.

Methodology

Search process and sample selection.

A systematic review requires researchers to thoroughly examine all existing studies in a certain research area. This ensures a replicable, scientific, and transparent approach with minimal bias (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009 ). We adopt the “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis” (PRISMA) guideline (Moher et al. 2009 ) to identify eligible articles. The screening process is presented in Fig. 1 . We consulted an advanced keyword search on Google Scholar to retrieve literature on slum tourism. We chose Google Scholar because it provides broader access to a diverse range of scholarly articles, including those from various regions and disciplines that may not be indexed in databases like Web of Science or Scopus. Furthermore, since this study aims to review research articles on slum tourism, which is pertinent in the Global South, many journals or articles published or authored in the Global South are not indexed in Web of Science or Scopus but can be found on Google Scholar. This accessibility is vital for ensuring the inclusion of relevant studies that reflect the diverse contexts of slum tourism.

The systematic workflow and results.

For our subject search, we used the keywords “slum tourism.” We consciously omitted country-specific terms like barrios, township, and favela to prevent a regional bias (Baffoe and Kintrea, 2023 ). Google Scholar Advanced Search provides the choice to locate keywords either “in the title of the article” or “anywhere in the article.” We chose the latter, ensuring the inclusion of articles that might employ regional terms synonymous with “slum” in their titles. This approach also considered the potential cross-referencing of slum tourism literature in these articles. Conducted in August 2023 without time constraints, our search yielded 2690 materials.

To uphold the literature’s quality, only peer-reviewed scientific articles were chosen, excluding “grey literatures” such as reports, theses, conference proceedings, and other similar outputs. Books and book chapters were not incorporated into our review because our focus extended to trends in slum tourism research. The accelerated pace of academic publishing in journals, as compared to the longer timelines associated with books, means they often house the most current findings and trends. Utilizing a bibliometric analysis approach, we found the standardized structure of journal articles particularly beneficial, allowing for a more straightforward process in extracting, comparing, and synthesizing data. Books and their chapters, given their varied formats, might not always provide this level of consistency. Recognizing that a systematic review cannot encompass all languages, we confined our study to English-written articles.

After the initial screening, 148 articles closely related to slum tourism were identified. Our perspective on slum tourism aligns with Frenzel’s ( 2018 , p. 51) definition, describing it as “tourism where poverty and associated signifiers become central themes and (part of the) attraction of the visited destination.” Upon a thorough review of the full texts, it became apparent that some articles, while mentioning “slum tourism,” did not primarily focus on it. For instance, the work of Jones and Sanyal ( 2015 ) discusses the portrayal of Dharavi—India and Asia’s largest informal settlement—in slum tours, arts, and documentaries. Although their article addresses how Dharavi is represented in slum tours, its primary focus is on the depiction of informal settlements and urban poverty across various media, not slum tourism per se. Consequently, this article was excluded from our dataset. We also eliminated editorials, short commentaries, research notes, and prior literature reviews. This filtering narrowed our selection to 107 peer-reviewed articles. An exhaustive examination of their references added another 15 articles, giving a total of 122 articles. Figure 1 visualizes the selection process.

Data analysis

This study utilized both bibliometric and qualitative content analyses. Bibliometric analysis is crucial for identifying both established and emerging research themes as well as influential authors, key studies, and prominent journals (Hajek et al. 2022 ). We employed VOSviewer, a leading bibliometric analysis software, to undertake co-citation and keyword co-occurrence analyses, examining slum tourism research. Co-citation analysis pinpoints influential authors, studies, and journals, leveraging citations as pivotal indicators of scientific impact (De Bellis, 2009 ). Meanwhile, keyword co-occurrence analysis highlights prominent keywords and their relationships, signposting research field hotspots (Wang and Yang, 2019 ).

Augmenting the bibliometric approach, our qualitative content analysis delved deeper into the primary themes of slum tourism research. The keyword co-occurrence analysis supplied a broad view of research themes and trending topics. Emerging nodes and clusters helped pinpoint dominant research themes. By meticulously analyzing each article’s content, we executed a critical review of every theme. We also broached prospective research trajectories in the article’s conclusion.

Overview of slum tourism research

Figure 2 illustrates the evolving research landscape of slum tourism. The journey began in 2004 with two seminal papers by Kaplan ( 2004 ) and Rogerson ( 2004 ). Both delved into Johannesburg’s township tourism, emphasizing tourism’s potential in poverty mitigation and the region’s economic upliftment. Post-2004, the domain attracted escalating scholarly interest, evidenced by a notable publication upswing from 2012 onward.

Publishing trends of slum tourism research.

Two pivotal discursive events in Bristol (2010) and Potsdam (2014) further catalyzed the field’s evolution. Gathering global experts on slum tourism, these events spurred foundational texts that have since informed the discipline. The post-Bristol momentum produced a special Tourism Geographies issue in 2012, curated by Frenzel and Koens. Successive publications, like the “Slum Tourism” special issue of Die Erde 144 (2) in 2013, and the themed “Slum Tourism” issue of Tourism Review International in 2015, further cemented the field’s prominence. Undoubtedly, these seminal conferences and publications have been instrumental in surging scholarly endeavors in slum tourism research.

We conducted a co-citation analysis to pinpoint the leading authors and journals in the realm of slum tourism research. A co-citation refers to the simultaneous citation of two documents (Small, 1973 ). Such analysis aids scholars in organizing scientific literature and grasping the evolution of specific research domains (Surwase et al. 2011 ).

Figure 3 illustrates the outcomes of our author co-citation analysis. We established a threshold of 40 citations to identify the most influential authors within our dataset of 4229 authors. Only 11 authors met this threshold, allowing for a focused examination of the core contributors in the field. Their significant scholarly impact is reflected by their extensive citations, with node size in the visualization representing co-citation strength. Rogerson, Frenzel, and Steinbrink emerged as the most frequently cited authors, with the highest link strengths of 3978, 3173, and 2734, respectively. Rogerson’s work delved into the economic ramifications of tourism in South African townships, highlighting the part slum tourism plays in poverty reduction and sustainable community economic growth (Booyens and Rogerson, 2019 a, 2019b ; Rogerson, 2014 ). He also discussed urban tourism’s influence on small and medium-sized enterprises (Rogerson, 2004 , 2008 ). In contrast, Frenzel and Steinbrink examined the commercialization of urban informal settlements and the portrayal and appreciation of poverty (Frenzel, 2017 ; Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ; Steinbrink, 2012 , 2013 ).

Author co-citation network.

Other notable authors in this field include Freire-Medeiros, who discussed the transformation of Brazilian favelas into tourist attractions (Freire-Medeiros et al. 2013 ; Freire-Medeiros, 2007 , 2009 , 2011 ), Koens, who probed the growth of small and medium-sized businesses in South African townships (Koens and Thomas, 2015 , 2016 ) and local perceptions of slum tourism in India (Slikker and Koens, 2015 ), and Booyens, who primarily focused on responsible tourism in South African townships (Booyens, 2010 ; Booyens and Rogerson, 2019b , 2018). Rolfes also made a significant contribution by studying the ethical aspects of slum tourism (Burgold and Rolfes, 2013 ; Rolfes, 2010 ).

Intriguingly, although not a slum tourism specialist, Urry stands among the eleven most-cited authors. He is renowned for introducing “the tourist gaze” concept (Urry, 1990 ), suggesting that tourist experiences and choices are more influenced by the tourism industry, societal norms, and cultural factors than by personal autonomy. This theory offers a crucial framework for understanding how poverty is portrayed in slum tourism and the dynamics between tourists and local residents.

Figure 4 presents the map of journal co-citations, illuminating the academic areas focused on the topic of “slum tourism.” A journal co-citation analysis, conducted with a threshold of 40 citations, identified 11 key journals from a pool of 3013 in our dataset, underscoring their central roles in the discourse of the field. Notably, the Annals of Tourism Research occupies a central position on the map with the highest link strength of 2608, highlighting its prominence as the most-cited journal in slum tourism research. These journals are categorized into two primary clusters: tourism studies and geography/urban studies. This categorization reflects the dual scholarly interest in slum tourism, which intertwines travel motivations with the complexities of urban environments. On one hand, tourism researchers probe the allure of these regions, the ensuing cultural interactions, and the ethical debates surrounding poverty as an attraction. Conversely, geography and urban studies scholars explore the spatial structures of informal settlements, underlying socio-economic drivers, and the reciprocal impact between tourism and urban evolution. Collectively, these disciplines provide a nuanced view of slum tourism’s multifaceted nature. Notably, Development Southern Africa does not align strictly with these categories, but as a multidisciplinary journal emphasizing policy and practice in Southern Africa—a hub for modern slum tourism—it garners frequent citations.

Journal co-citation network.

After meticulously reviewing the 122 publications, we pinpointed the locations that are focal points for slum tourism research. As presented in Table 1 , South Africa, India, and Brazil emerge as the most extensively researched countries in this domain. They are closely followed by Kenya, Mexico, Colombia, Egypt, and Indonesia.

Township tourism in South Africa, deeply rooted in the country’s complex history, is a significant topic in slum tourism research. This form of tourism, which emerged in post-apartheid South Africa (Steinbrink, 2012 ), focuses on areas historically designated as “black only” zones, where disparities still exist (Iqani, 2016 ). Originating in Soweto, Johannesburg, it has since spread to other major cities. The 2010 FIFA World Cup, hosted by South Africa, notably boosted its popularity (Marschall, 2013 ). Today, Cape Town is a key destination for township tourism, with townships like Langa and Khayelitsha attracting tourists due to their historical significance (Rolfes, 2010 ).

Similar to South Africa, favela tourism in Brazil has political roots. These favelas, initially informal settlements for the formerly enslaved (Iqani, 2016 ), gained international attention after the 1992 Earth Summit, when delegates visited Rio de Janeiro’s favelas (Frenzel, 2012 ). Their prominence increased further during the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Olympics (Steinbrink, 2013 ). Despite their cultural richness, favelas face challenges like crime and drug trafficking (Freire-Medeiros, 2009 ). Rio’s favelas, especially Rocinha and Santa Marta, attract numerous tourists each year (Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ).

In India, the scenario of slum tourism is notably different, with Mumbai’s Dharavi, one of the world’s largest informal settlement, being a key focus of India-specific studies. Other informal settlements in cities like Kolkata and Delhi have also attracted scholarly attention (Holst, 2015 ; Sen, 2008 ). These informal settlements are characterized by their micro-industries and recycling efforts, showcasing the resilience and entrepreneurial spirit of the residents (Gupta, 2016 ). Although a relatively new trend compared to its counterparts, India’s slum tourism industry has burgeoned, spawning numerous tour operators (Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ).

Over time, slum tourism has gained traction, spreading to nations across the Global South, including Kenya, Colombia, Mexico, Egypt, and the Philippines. In our study, while most articles were location-specific, ten adopted a holistic approach, discussing the overarching theme of slum tourism.

Prominent areas of slum tourism research

We conducted a keyword co-occurrence analysis on our slum tourism research dataset to identify and visualize the most significant themes by examining the frequency and relationships of keywords. This method facilitated the identification of central research clusters and thematic hotspots within the topic. Figure 5 illustrates the network of keywords that frequently co-occur in slum tourism studies. To refine our data, we consolidated similar keywords, for example, pairing “township” with “townships” and “developing countries” with “developing world.” For this analysis, we set a threshold to include keywords that appeared at least three times, leading to the selection of 44 out of 322 keywords, thereby emphasizing their significance within the field. In the network, each node represents a keyword; larger nodes indicate higher frequencies of occurrence. Our analysis revealed six distinct clusters, each differentiated by a unique color.

Network visualization of the keywords co-occurrence.

The red cluster focuses on “slum tourism,” examining the development of tourism in informal settlements and its wide-ranging socio-economic impacts. This cluster covers aspects such as “branding” and the role of “tour guides,” and emphasizes key socio-economic factors including “residents’ perceptions” and “poverty alleviation.” Simultaneously, the green cluster, highlighting terms such as “township tourism” and “economic development,” shifts focus to the growth of local, often small-to-medium-sized, tourism businesses, particularly spotlighting township tourism in South Africa. Meanwhile, the light blue cluster examines the impact of slum tourism on local communities, with a special focus on “community-based tourism” and favela tourism in Brazil. The yellow cluster delves into the portrayal of poverty as a key draw in slum tourism, questioning its classification as “poverty tourism” and exploring the shift towards more ethical, “pro-poor,” and responsible tourism practices. Concurrently, the purple cluster critically examines the portrayal and perception of poverty in slum tourism, focusing on tourist perspectives influenced by the “tourist gaze” and social media. Lastly, the dark blue cluster analyzes how globalization and rising consumer culture have spurred the growth of slum tourism, integrating themes like “globalization,” “space,” and “consumption,” and underscoring poverty’s central role in this phenomenon.

In our thematic analysis of publications, we integrated clusters with similar themes. The red, green, yellow, and light blue clusters, which focus on the socio-economic impacts of slum tourism on local communities, were merged. The red and dark blue clusters, addressing the transformation of urban informal settlements into tourist destinations and their driving factors, were also combined into a single theme. Furthermore, the purple and yellow clusters, centered on the portrayal and perception of poverty in slum tourism, were grouped together. Our review systematically examines these unified themes, as illustrated in Table 2 .

Touristic transformation of urban informal settlements

The transformation of urban informal settlements into tourist destinations has been extensively discussed in earlier literature on slum tourism. This transformation hinges significantly on cultural and historical heritage. As previously mentioned, Brazil’s favelas and South Africa’s townships attracted visitors with political and cultural interests (Frenzel, 2012 ; Steinbrink, 2012 ). Gradually, with the globalization that stimulated global mobility and the rise of consumer culture, these locales became spaces of interaction, juxtaposing mobility and immobility on a global scale (Dürr, 2012a ). As many informal settlements in the Global South were represented in global media, they gained increasing touristic attention. For instance, after the success of the film “The City of God” in 2003, the number of foreign visitors to favelas in Rio grew significantly (Freire-Medeiros, 2011 ). As Freire-Medeiros ( 2009 , p. 582) mentioned in another article that tours in these informal settlements “are equally indebted to the phenomenon of circulation and consumption, at a global level, of the favela as a trademark.”

In the touristic transformation of informal settlements, policy plays a pivotal role. For instance, local governments in South Africa actively encouraged township tourism by creating museums, developing historical and political heritage sites, and promoting township upgrading programs (Booyens, 2010 ; Booyens and Rogerson, 2019b ; Marschall, 2013 ). In Brazil, favela tourism served as a means to enhance its image in the context of preparations for mega-events in Rio, a strategy dubbed “Festifavelasation” (Steinbrink, 2013 ). South Africa pursued a similar path after securing the 2010 FIFA World Cup (Marschall, 2013 ). In Colombia, a policy known as “social urbanism” led Medellin, previously known for its drug barons and criminal activities, to undergo social and economic transformation, attracting both interest and tourists (Hernandez‐Garcia, 2013 ).

In analyzing our dataset’s articles, it is evident that slum tours primarily occur in well-known informal settlements of the Global South, such as Mumbai’s Dharavi, Rio de Janeiro’s Rocinha, and Johannesburg’s Soweto. These locations are preferred due to the factors previously mentioned. However, this growing industry often overlooks numerous lesser-known and more impoverished communities (Koens, 2012 ). Issues such as insufficient infrastructure, the absence of tourist attractions, and poor security hinder the growth of tourism in informal urban settlements. This situation is clearly seen in areas like Harare, Zimbabwe (Mukoroverwa and Chiutsi, 2018 ), and certain townships in Durban, South Africa (Chili, 2015 ).

A significant barrier is also the lack of awareness of pro-poor tourism in these lesser-known areas. Munyanyiwa et al.’s ( 2014 ) research in Harare’s townships revealed that many residents were unaware of township tourism, compounded by insufficient infrastructure and community involvement to support it. Moreover, residents were unsure of how to benefit from such initiatives, with historical tourism activities largely unknown to them. Similarly, Attaalla’s ( 2016 ) study in Egypt highlighted the minimal awareness of pro-poor tourism, the absence of a comprehensive government policy to develop this tourism type, and the scarcity of specialized Egyptian tour operators and travel agencies in the pro-poor tourism market. For successful tourism in these areas, it’s vital to enhance infrastructure, safety, and offer innovative tourism experiences (Mukoroverwa and Chiutsi, 2018 ). Additionally, improved information dissemination and increased stakeholder engagement are essential (Munyanyiwa et al. 2014 ).

The transition of informal settlements into tourist destinations brings several challenges. Notably, the commercialization of these marginalized areas can aestheticize deprivation and social inequality, turning them into themed spaces that reinforce stereotypes and maintain informal settlements as attractions shaped by tourist expectations (e.g. Altamirano, 2022b ; Dürr, 2012a ). Building on this point, Dürr et al. ( 2020 ) highlighted that marketing urban poverty and violence as a city brand could exacerbate existing inequalities. Research also shows that in many touristic informal settlements, local residents often do not fully engage with or benefit from tourism (Koens and Thomas, 2015 ; Marschall, 2013 ). Furthermore, public policies aimed at transforming these settlements sometimes lack consistency, creating insecurity among locals (Altamirano, 2022b ). Addressing these issues requires enhanced policies and increased community involvement in tourism, posing significant challenges for local governments.

Valorization and representation of urban poverty

In 2010, the term “poverty tourism” was recognized in slum tourism research, casting a spotlight on the intricate connection between poverty and this type of tourism (Rolfes, 2010 ). This tourism variant is not without controversy, interrogating the confluence of poverty, power, and ethical dilemmas (see Chhabra and Chowdhury, 2012 ; Korstanje, 2016 ; Outterson et al. 2011 ). This dynamic between the commodification of impoverished settlements and their portrayal within the tourism spectrum has ignited fervent academic debate.

Frenzel ( 2014 ) critically observed that within the paradigm of slum tourism, poverty transcends its role as a mere backdrop, ascending to the primary spectacle. Consequently, this leads to the commodification of urban impoverishment, turning it into a tourism commodity with tangible monetary value (Rolfes, 2010 ). Scholars have extensively dissected this juxtaposition. While some examine the framing, representation, and marketing dimensions (Dürr et al. 2020 ; Meschkank, 2011 ; Rolfes, 2010 ), others argued that poverty becomes romanticized, perceived more as a cultural artifact rather than an urgent societal issue (Crossley, 2012 ; Huysamen et al. 2020 ; Nisbett, 2017 ).

In this tapestry, both tourists and tour operators play pivotal roles in framing the narrative. Operators, tapping into the tourists’ quest for the “authenticity” embedded in the narratives of global urbanization, exert significant influence in shaping perceptions (Meschkank, 2012 ; Rolfes, 2010 ). Studies have observed that in an attempt to counteract the inherently negative perceptions surrounding informal settlements (Dyson, 2012 ), operators often position these spaces as beacons of hope, underlining the tenacity, optimism, and aspirations of the residents (Crossley, 2012 ; Dürr et al. 2020 ; Huysamen et al. 2020 ; Meschkank, 2011 ). Moreover, to navigate the moral complexities that tourists might grapple with, operators design their offerings as ethical enterprises, promising both enlightenment for the tourists and tangible economic upliftment for the communities (Muldoon and Mair, 2016 ; Nisbett, 2017 ).

However, such strategies face intellectual scrutiny for their potential to obfuscate the palpable suffering that underpins these urban landscapes. Several studies affirm that poverty dominates the observational narratives across tours in global cities from Mumbai to Rio de Janeiro (Crossley, 2012 ; Dürr et al. 2020 ; Meschkank, 2012 ). As Clini and Valančiūnas ( 2023 ) observed, such sanitized representations, while better than negative stereotypes, could unintentionally normalize the systemic inequalities associated with poverty. This approach not only risks reducing the perceived need for urgent poverty alleviation efforts but also may leave existing societal inequalities unchallenged. This has prompted critiques that label the phenomenon as commercial “voyeurism, and exploitation for commercial ends” (Burgold and Rolfes, 2013 , p. 162).

For tourists, their motivation often orbits around the pursuit of “authenticity” when they consider visiting informal settlements (see Clini and Valančiūnas, 2023 ; Crossley, 2012 ; Gupta, 2016 ; Meschkank, 2011 ; Steinbrink, 2012 ). Marketed as unvarnished encounters with reality, informal settlements are often depicted as bastions of culture, diversity, and authenticity (Frenzel et al. 2015 ). This category of slum tourism is, thus, situated within the broader realm of “reality tourism,” promising participatory experiences in socio-economically challenged urban landscapes (Wise et al. 2019 ). However, this approach, despite aligning with general tourism patterns, is not devoid of problems. The very essence of this touristic venture, which is to experience urban impoverishment, inherently establishes an imbalanced dynamic between tourists and inhabitants, leading to its characterization as a form of voyeurism. (Dürr et al. 2020 ; Meschkank, 2011 ).

In the last decade, slum tourism has diversified with new tours offered by locals and NGOs, aiming to challenge stereotypes and present a more complex picture of informal settlements. Frenzel ( 2014 ) noted that guides can empower communities by focusing on often-ignored aspects of these areas. While motivations vary, with some guides driven by profit and others by community welfare and resisting gentrification effects, the role of guides is crucial. Angelini’s ( 2020 ) examination of favela tours accentuated the nuanced challenges faced by these guides, as they attempt to strike a balance between authentic representation and the commodification of their environments. Further, Dürr et al. ( 2021 ) in their ethnographic study in Mexico City’s Tepito, showed how guides can positively portray deprived areas without depoliticizing them, contextualizing local achievements within city politics and using historical narratives to emphasize the area’s significance.

In the digital era, social media significantly influences the slum tourism narrative (Sarrica et al. 2021 ). The Internet is vital for operators to market and sell tours and provide information to potential travelers (Privitera, 2015 ). Many studies have analyzed slum tourism portrayals in online reviews and media, exploring how these areas and experiences are represented (Huysamen et al. 2020 ; Nisbett, 2017 ; Sarrica et al. 2021 ; Shang et al. 2022 ; Wise et al. 2019 ). For instance, Nisbett ( 2017 ) highlighted concerns about reviews that often gloss over poverty’s complexities, focusing instead on the tours’ economic aspects. Similarly, Huysamen et al. ( 2020 ) observed that tourist narratives tend to paint these areas as “slums of hope,” ignoring the disparity between wealthy tourists and impoverished locals. Ekdale and Tuwei ( 2016 ) studied texts from Kibera visitors, noting that while tourists claim to gain authentic understanding of global inequality, their privileged perspective remains unexamined. These “ironic encounters” often reinforce global inequalities, serving more as self-validation for tourists than a true engagement with local challenges.

On the flip side, social media’s role in depicting informal settlements is not always reductive. Some academics posit that these platforms can provide a counter-narrative to skewed representations by offering avenues to disseminate a diverse array of authentic stories and perspectives (Sarrica et al. 2021 ). Crucially, social media can amplify local residents’ voices, allowing them to share concerns about slum tourism, including privacy, potential exploitation, and daily life disruptions (Crapolicchio et al. 2022 ). The digital era thus presents both opportunities and challenges for slum tourism, underscoring the need for ethical and respectful interactions that honor and authentically represent these communities’ narratives.

Social and economic impact of slum tourism to local communities

The economic and social impacts of tourism in these informal settlements are prominent themes in slum tourism research. Across various countries, including Egypt, South Africa, Brazil, and Indonesia, tourism has spurred urban development and improved living conditions in informal settlements (Anyumba, 2017 ; Booyens and Rogerson, 2019a ; Mekawy, 2012 ; Sulistyaningsih et al. 2022 ; Torres, 2012 ). Developments like aerial cable cars in Brazil’s favelas and minibus-taxis in South African townships have evolved local transportation systems (Freire-Medeiros and Name, 2017 ; Rietjens et al. 2006 ). These advancements facilitate social transformation, such as increased security investments in Brazilian favelas (Freire-Medeiros et al. 2013 ) and “social urbanism” in Colombian barrios, integrating marginalized communities and improving education and security (Hernandez‐Garcia, 2013 ). A comparative study of the touristification of Gamcheon Culture Village (Busan, South Korea) and Comuna 13 (Medellin, Colombia) highlighted that effective governance can create community networks and stakeholder partnerships, fostering entrepreneurial opportunities (Escalona and Oh, 2022 ).

Tourism holds potential as a means to reduce poverty by creating employment opportunities in impoverished urban areas (Aseye and Opoku, 2015 ; Cardoso et al. 2022 ; Paul, 2016 ). Slum tourism, in particular, fosters entrepreneurship, allowing residents to start their own tour companies or bed and breakfasts. However, challenges for local entrepreneurs include limited market access, stiff competition, low marketing budgets, poor business locations, and lack of support from established firms, often leading to the marginalization of smaller operators in a market dominated by larger companies (see Chili, 2018 ; Hikido, 2018 ; Mokoena and Liambo, 2023 ; Mtshali et al. 2017 ; Nemasetoni and Rogerson, 2005 ). Further, small business owners frequently lack essential education and marketing skills (see Leonard and Dladla, 2020 ; Letuka and Lebambo, 2022 ; Rogerson, 2004 ). Mokoena and Liambo ( 2023 ) observed that only a minority of entrepreneurs adopt competitive strategies in their businesses.

Scholars have also observed that the profits from slum tourism are insufficient for significant poverty alleviation (Freire-Medeiros, 2009 , 2012 ). Koen and Thomas’ study of South Africa townships ( 2015 ) highlighted the challenge to the idea that small business owners reinvest their profits locally for economic development. Successful entrepreneurs often leave their townships due to a lack of local ties, leading to economic benefits being concentrated among a small, predominantly male, privileged group, while marginalized groups’ businesses yield lower gains. Moreover, most slum tour companies depend heavily on foreign support, resulting in substantial economic leakage (Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ; Meschkank, 2012 ; Rolfes, 2010 ).

The social implications of slum tourism form a major focus in recent academic studies, particularly regarding how local residents perceive this tourism form. Surveys and interviews with inhabitants of informal settlements have uncovered a range of reactions, including positive, negative, skeptical, and indifferent attitudes toward slum tourism (Amo et al. 2019 ; Auala et al. 2019 ; Freire-Medeiros, 2012 ; Marschall, 2013 ; Slikker and Koens, 2015 ).

In Rio, Mumbai, and Nairobi, some studies reveal that residents feel embarrassed by slum tourism, as certain operators emphasize negative community aspects to cater to tourists seeking “real” poverty experiences, leading to privacy issues (Freire-Medeiros, 2012 ; Kieti and Magio, 2013 ; Slikker and Koens, 2015 ). Conversely, slum tourism is also viewed positively in many areas. Slikker and Koens’ ( 2015 ) study in Mumbai and Amo et al. ( 2019 ) research in Medellin found residents believe it counters negative stereotypes and raises community visibility. In Nairobi and Cape Town, locals welcome it as a source of income and jobs (Chege and Mwisukha, 2013 ; Potgieter et al. 2019 ). Additionally, Muldoon et al.’s South African studies suggest slum tourism empowers residents by bringing international attention to townships, giving them more control over their narratives and a sense of importance (Muldoon, 2020 ; Muldoon and Mair, 2022 ).

Indeed, the social impact of tourism is dualistic. As Altamirano ( 2022a ) pointed out, while tourism can establish new material and symbolic frameworks, providing residents with chances for counter-hegemonic actions, it does not uniformly support the cultural empowerment of impoverished communities. Instead, it can result in neoliberal development and increased surveillance. This underscores the necessity for thoughtful policymaking in slum tourism, advocating for policies that prioritize the well-being and cultural richness of communities over mere profit generation, particularly in environments marked by urban disparities and complex power dynamics.

Booyens and Rogerson ( 2019 b) suggested that slum tourism ought to function as a type of “creative tourism,” fostering solidarity and mutual understanding between tourists and local residents, stimulating economic growth in communities, and increasing awareness of the North-South disparity in the postcolonial context. The transition to pro-poor tourism heavily relies on effective policy implementation. Therefore, numerous scholars have advocated for policy instruments to enhance safety and infrastructure, and to facilitate effective coordination among various stakeholders, alongside strengthening institutional frameworks (e.g. Aseye and Opoku, 2015 ; Booyens, 2010 ; Chege and Mwisukha, 2013 ; Rusata et al. 2023 ).

Furthermore, the success of slum tourism largely depends on local community engagement (Duarte and Peters, 2012 ). Yet, in many cases, such as in India (Slikker and Koens, 2015 ), Kenya (Kieti and Magio, 2013 ), Brazil (Freire-Medeiros, 2012 ), and elsewhere, local residents’ participation is limited. Various factors contribute to this, including inadequate business knowledge and skills, and social and financial barriers (Dzikiti and Leonard, 2016 ; Hammad, 2021 ; Leonard and Dladla, 2020 ). Addressing this, researchers emphasize the need for tourism-specific training and resources for local entrepreneurs, particularly focusing on youth (Dzikiti and Leonard, 2016 ; Mbane and Ezeuduji, 2022 ; Nkemngu, 2014 ). To leverage slum tourism for community development, equipping locals with the skills and tools for effective tourism participation is crucial, though it remains a challenging goal.

Conclusion and future research agenda

Over the past two decades, “slum tourism” and its academic study have expanded significantly. Our systematic review of 122 peer-reviewed journal articles sheds light on key authors and journals in this field. The most cited journals typically specialize in tourism studies or geography/urban studies, underscoring the blend of travel motivations and urban complexities in slum tourism. Our findings show that South Africa, India, and Brazil are the most researched countries, with others like Kenya, Mexico, Colombia, Egypt, and Indonesia also being significant. The keyword co-occurrence analysis identified three primary research areas: the touristic transformation of urban informal settlements, the portrayal and valorization of urban poverty, and the socio-economic impacts of slum tourism. This study not only outlines the scope of current research but also points out gaps, suggesting that the economic, social, and cultural effects of slum tourism warrant further exploration in future studies.

The economic aspects of slum tourism, widely debated in academic circles, pose unanswered questions about the actual financial benefits for local residents and communities. Frenzel and Koens ( 2012 ) noted a lack of quantitative evaluations, leaving the impact of slum tours on poverty reduction and urban development uncertain. Existing research, primarily qualitative involving interviews, ethnography, media content analysis, and stakeholder surveys, fails to adequately measure the economic impact on informal settlements. Although studies like those by Chege and Mwisukha ( 2013 ) and Potgieter et al. ( 2019 ) indicated resident perceptions of slum tourism as a source of income and employment, these lack concrete statistical backing. The financial dynamics of slum tourism, including the economic leakage stemming from reliance on external and foreign support (Frenzel and Blakeman, 2015 ; Meschkank, 2012 ; Rolfes, 2010 ), warrant more in-depth investigation. Future research should focus on tracing profit distribution in slum tourism and assessing its real effects on the communities, considering the prominent role of local guides and their relationships with tour operators.

The intangible impacts of slum tourism, including social, political, and cultural aspects, are a fertile area for future research. Shifting focus to local residents’ views, recent studies have shown slum tourism’s broad influence beyond just economic factors, notably in changing perceptions of poverty. However, as Koens ( 2012 ) pointed out, evaluating these impacts is complex due to the deep social and historical contexts within these communities. Advocates for authentic local engagement, like Slikker and Koens ( 2015 ) and Freire-Medeiros ( 2012 ), emphasized the importance of giving local residents a voice. Muldoon’s research ( 2020 ; Muldoon and Mair, 2022 ) in South Africa demonstrates how township tourism allows locals to redefine their identities and interactions with tourists. On the other hand, Freire-Medeiros ( 2012 ) noted in Brazil’s Rocinha the possibility of residents altering narratives for tourist appeal. This highlights the need to integrate the genuine experiences of locals into slum tourism research to fully grasp its diverse impacts.

The potential for slum tourism to either reinforce or challenge existing power dynamics and stereotypes represents a dynamic area of ongoing debate, ripe for further theoretical exploration. Slum tourism is emblematic of neoliberal capitalist practices, where the lived experiences of marginalized communities are commodified and consumed predominantly by Western tourists. This pattern aligns with David Harvey’s concept of “accumulation by dispossession,” where the exploitation and aestheticization of poverty serve to reinforce global economic disparities (Harvey, 2003 ). By transforming informal settlements into tourist attractions, slum tourism becomes a mechanism of cultural commodification, packaging poverty-stricken environments for sale and perpetuating a global hierarchy that privileges affluent tourists while marginalizing local residents.

The representation of informal settlements within this tourism framework often involves selective storytelling, echoing Edward Said’s notion of “Orientalism.” This process portrays the “Other” in ways that reinforce Western superiority and exoticize non-Western realities, contributing to the perpetuation of stereotypes and obscuring the systemic causes of poverty (Said, 2003 ). Such portrayals often sanitize the harsh realities of poverty, presenting informal settlements as exotic and intriguing destinations, thus skewing the understanding of global inequalities and framing poverty more as a cultural artifact than an urgent social issue.

Conversely, slum tourism holds potential to challenge and subvert these entrenched power dynamics and stereotypes. When approached through the lens of ethical representation, it becomes a platform that amplifies marginalized voices and promotes more equitable narratives. This approach is deeply rooted in theories of participatory development and empowerment, which argue that local communities should be active agents in shaping their own narratives, rather than passive subjects (Dürr et al. 2021 ; Frenzel, 2014 ). Employing local guides and focusing on authentic narratives that highlight both the challenges and resilience of informal settlement residents can provide a counter-narrative to dominant discourses, promoting a more nuanced and respectful understanding of these communities.

The role of social media in slum tourism highlights the significance of digital globalization in shaping narratives. Social media platforms provide avenues for local residents to share their perspectives, thereby democratizing the discourse and challenging stereotypical representations (Sarrica et al. 2021 ). This aligns with the ethics of representation, advocating for portrayals that respect the dignity and agency of marginalized communities (Crapolicchio et al. 2022 ). By enabling a more participatory and inclusive approach, social media can help mitigate the voyeuristic tendencies of slum tourism and foster a more ethical engagement with these communities.

Another prominent takeaway from this systematic literature review is the observation that the practice, perception, and success of slum tourism vary significantly across different cultural and geographical contexts. In Brazil, for instance, the favelas of Rio de Janeiro have been transformed into tourist destinations, influenced not only by their portrayal in internationally acclaimed films but also by the mega-events hosted in the city. This phenomenon has led to a form of tourism that often celebrates the cultural vibrancy of these areas, despite underlying issues of poverty and inequality. Conversely, in India, Mumbai’s Dharavi is marketed as a hub of entrepreneurship and industry, attracting tourists more interested in the economic dynamics of informal settlement life than in cultural spectacle alone. These differences illustrate how local contexts shape the thematic emphasis of slum tours.

However, the ability to develop slum or pro-poor tourism is not uniformly distributed. Many areas lack the necessary infrastructure, adequate security, or appealing tourist attractions, which impedes their ability to attract and sustain tourism. For instance, some townships in Durban, South Africa, and informal settlements in Harare, Zimbabwe, contend with issues such as poor security and insufficient infrastructure, making them less appealing to tourists and challenging to market as destinations (Chili, 2015 ; Mukoroverwa and Chiutsi, 2018 ). This disparity highlights the uneven impacts of global tourism trends on local communities and points to the necessity for ethical and sustainable tourism practices in urban settings marked by significant socio-economic divides.

To enhance our understanding of slum tourism dynamics and to devise more effective interventions, it is crucial to undertake further comparative studies. These studies should delve into why certain areas are successful in developing tourism that benefits local communities while others falter, considering both global influences and local conditions. Such research is imperative for uncovering the potential of tourism as a tool for social and economic improvement in marginalized urban areas and contributes significantly to the broader discourse on globalization, urban inequality, and sustainable development.

In this vein, a pivotal area for future research is transforming “slum tourism” into a form of responsible tourism that transcends the poverty-centric narrative often associated with terms like “slum,” “township,” and “favela” (Burgold and Rolfes, 2013 ; Rolfes, 2010 ; Steinbrink et al. 2012 ). While it is valuable to highlight the cultural and historical aspects of these communities, such portrayals frequently overlook the entrenched structural inequality and violence that pervade these areas. Furthermore, tourism often concentrates only on well-known locations, ignoring the most impoverished and lesser-known settlements, thus raising questions about the applicability of sustainable development strategies in these marginalized areas (Frenzel, 2013 ). It is essential that future research explores how slum tourism can truly benefit residents and address broader socio-economic challenges, ensuring it evolves into a form of responsible tourism.

This shift towards responsible slum tourism necessitates a comprehensive emphasis on ethical considerations, community involvement, and sustainable economic benefits for local residents. Ethical considerations must encompass respect for the dignity and agency of the communities involved, eschewing exploitative practices that commodify poverty for tourist consumption. Community involvement is imperative, as it enables residents to influence how their neighborhoods are portrayed and ensure their central participation in both managing and benefiting from tourism initiatives. This might include training local guides, engaging residents in creating tour content, and allocating a substantial share of tourism revenues back into the community.

Furthermore, ensuring sustainable economic benefits for residents is fundamental to responsible slum tourism. This involves fostering tourism that generates reliable income opportunities for locals, such as through establishing small businesses or cooperative ventures tailored to the tourism industry. Potential enterprises could include local eateries, souvenir shops, and accommodation services, all managed and operated by community members. Investment in infrastructure improvements that support tourism activities and simultaneously enhance resident quality of life is also crucial. Additionally, it is essential to implement mechanisms to track the flow of financial benefits to ensure that the revenue generated by tourism is indeed benefiting the local communities as intended.

The data collection for this study, completed in August 2023, revealed a notable gap: the lack of research on the impact of the COVID pandemic on slum tourism, despite the pandemic lasting three years. The pandemic has disproportionately affected informal settlement dwellers, as evidenced by Seddiky et al. ( 2023 ). For instance, Bangkok’s informal settlement residents have suffered significant economic hardships (Pongutta et al. 2021 ), and containment measures have led to widespread business closures, impacting low-income, daily wage earners in impoverished communities (Solymári et al. 2022 ). This absence of academic focus on COVID’s specific impact on slum tourism marks a limitation in current literature. The pandemic’s disruption of travel presents an opportunity to reassess and develop more sustainable tourism practices that could benefit residents in impoverished areas.

Additionally, this study’s focus on slum tourism in the Global South overlooks the re-emerging field of slum or poverty tourism in the Global North. For instance, Burgold ( 2014 ) explored guided walking tours in Berlin-Neukölln, an area known for poverty and social issues, contrasting them with traditional tourism and highlighting their role in changing perceptions and aiding local residents’ societal integration. Similarly, “homeless experience” tours in cities like Toronto, London, Amsterdam, and Seattle offer insights into the lives of homeless individuals (Haven Toronto, 2018 ; Kassam, 2013 ). These tours, as controversial in the Global North as in the South, raise ethical concerns about commodifying poverty. Proponents see them as empathy-building, while critics view them as exploitative. The dynamics of poverty tours vary between developed and less developed countries, presenting a potential area for future comparative research.

“Slum tourism,” a relatively new research field, reflects the complexities of rapid urbanization and the North-South power dynamics in a globalized era. The current study offers a comprehensive, longitudinal perspective on slum tourism research, charting future directions for scholarly inquiry. It also provides valuable insights for practitioners to reassess the role of tourism in poverty alleviation within urban informal settlements in the Global South. For public policy, this research is instrumental in shaping strategies for urban development, poverty alleviation, and sustainable tourism, advocating for the integration of informal settlements into wider economic frameworks. Academically, it enriches the existing body of knowledge, spurring interdisciplinary research and delving into lesser-explored aspects of slum tourism. Additionally, by shedding light on the effects of tourism in these communities, the study promotes more informed, respectful, and responsible tourist behavior, encouraging travelers to adopt a more empathetic and culturally sensitive approach.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available in an uploaded CSV file.

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REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

Department of tourism.

PST:   8:36:19

Tourism Statistics

Industry performance for travel and tourism, visitor receipts.

Receipts for the month of December aggregated to about Php 33,406.72 million, 72.39% higher than the earnings in December last year of about Php 19,378.31 million.

The Average Daily Expenditure (ADE) for the month in review is Php 8,423.98. The Average Length of Stay (ALoS) of tourists in the country is recorded at 7.11 nights. On the other hand, Average per Capita Expenditure of visitors for the month is pegged at Php 59,894.48.

Korea is the top spending market with receipts amounting to about Php 12.14 billion. Visitors from USA registered an accumulated spending of about Php 4.30 billion. China placed third with almost Php 3.30 billion spent followed by Japan with estimated Php 2.15 billion spending and Canada with Php 1.64 billion.

High spending markets Malaysia, Germany, and Hongkong recorded more than Php 300 million of tourism expenditure in the country.

Among the top twenty markets, Korea registered per capita spending of Php 80,869.44. Taiwan followed with Php 68,666.85 per capita spending. Top markets with high per capita spending include Canada with Php 65,349.67, New Zealand with Php 61,964.32 and Russia with Php 55,477.01

The country welcomed 613,372 tourists for the month of December, showing growth of 6.37% from the 576,638 arrivals in the same month last year. This month recorded more than 600,000 arrivals and could be attributed to influx of visitors during the holidays.

By sub-regional grouping, East Asia supplied the majority of arrivals with a share of 49.16% corresponding to 301,515 visitors. This volume increased by 16.74% compared to December last year. Korea, Japan and China which belong to this region accounted for 45.13% of the total volume.

North America provided the second biggest influx of tourists with 124,546 arrivals, constituting 20.31% of the total tourist traffic. The ASEAN region comprised 6.60% share of the total equivalent to 40,501 arrivals.

Countries from Asia covered 57.40% of total tourist traffic corresponding to 352,098 visitors. Arrivals from the Americas contributed 20.57% to total inbound volume or 126,147 visitors. On the other hand, 73,025 arrivals (11.91%) came from Europe while some 39,715 arrivals (6.47%) were from Australasia/Pacific.

Arrivals by Port of Entry

Air arrivals comprised 97.09% of the total inbound visitors, equivalent to 595,527 visitors.A total of 389,293 tourists (63.47%) arrived at Ninoy Aquino International Airport, the primary port of entry of the country.

For the major airports in Central Philippines, 118,731 visitors (19.36%) entered through Mactan-Cebu International Airport while 46,653 (7.61%) were received at Kalibo International Airport. Clark International Airport recorded 32,077 of the visitors. Some 5,626 visitors entered through Tagbilaran Airport while the rest of the airports accumulated 3,147 arrivals.

More cruise ships arrived for the month of December, bringing a total of 14,272 tourists in various ports in the country.

Visitor Markets, December 2017

Korea, as the country’s top source market, produced 150,097 arrivals for the month in review. USA snagged the second spot from China for the month of December with 97,840 arrivals. Meanwhile, arrivals from China surged up by 72.78% to 78,333 arrival count from 45,336 in December last year. On the fourth spot is Japan with 48,371 arrivals.

Completing the top 10 markets are Australia with 31,721 arrivals, Canada with 25,071 arrivals, United Kingdom with 19,327 arrivals, Taiwan with 14,911 arrivals, Singapore with 14,846 arrivals, and Malaysia with 11,559 arrivals.

Visitor count from Hongkong reached 9,047, followed by Germany with 8,833 arrivals, and India with 8,190 arrivals. The top 20 markets this month includes the following: France with 6,071 arrivals, Indonesia with 5,414 arrivals, Sweden with 4,314 arrivals, Russia with 4,088 arrivals, New Zealand with 3,907 arrivals, Spain with 3,858 arrivals and Italy with 3,729 arrivals.

For 2017, earnings generated from tourism activities accumulated to Php 335,626.13 million (US$ 6.65 billion). Receipts rose by 45.84% from the estimated expenditure of Php 230,134.44 million (US$ 4.85 billion) in 2016. The month of July recorded the biggest receipts amounting to Php 33,406.72 million, while the month of September registered the highest growth of 117.23%

Visitor Arrivals

Arrivals to the Philippines reached a new milestone of surpassing six million arrivals with 6,620,908 visitor count. This volume registered an increase of 10.96% from the 5,967,005 count for the same period last year.

Consistent positive growth is observed throughout the year. The month of January recorded the biggest volume (631,639 arrivals) while the highest growth was registered in the month of April (+19.83%).

Countries from Asia has delivered a total of 4,135,324 arrivals, posting a market share of 62.46%. Huge segment came from East Asia with 3,517,471 arrivals (53.13%) while the remaining portions came from the ASEAN with 488,346 arrivals (7.38%) and South Asia with 129,507 arrivals.

The Americas accumulated a total of 1,176,480 arrivals, a slice of 17.77% from the total visitor traffic. On the other hand, arrivals from Europe reached a total of 675,399 (10.20%) while some 333,179 arrivals (5.03%) were from Australasia/Pacific.

Visitor Markets

As the country's top source of arrivals, Korea is the first market to surpass the 1.6 million arrivals. This market constituted almost one-fourth of country's arrivals as it accumulated a year-end volume of 1,607,821, a market share of 24.28% and registering a growth of 9.00% compared to its arrivals of 1,475,081 last year.

This year, China officially dislodged USA as the country's 2nd top market corresponding to 14.63% share to total inbound traffic. This market finished with 968,447 arrivals with an impressive growth of 43.33% from its 675,663 visitor count in 2016.

Although China took the second spot, the United States of America trailed very closely with 957,813 arrivals which is 14.47% share of the total. This figure showed an increase of 10.16% from 869,463 arrivals last year. Japan finished 4th with 584,180 arrivals, comprising 8.82% of the total inbound traffic and posting a growth of 9.14%.

The Australian market secured the fifth spot with 259,433 arrivals, providing 3.92% share to the total. Taiwan followed closely by bringing a total of 236,777 visitors, a share of 3.58%. Completing the top ten visitor markets are Canada with 200,640 arrivals, United Kingdom with 182,708 arrivals, Singapore with 168,637 arrivals, and Malaysia with 143,566 arrivals.

Hongkong and India claimed the 11th and 12th spot, with 111,135 arrivals and 107,278 arrivals, respectively. The top 20 source markets include Germany with 85,431 arrivals, France with 64,777 arrivals, Indonesia with 62,923 arrivals, Saudi Arabia with 54,716 arrivals, Thailand with 48,727 arrivals, Viet Nam with 39,951 arrivals, Spain with 36,954 arrivals and Guam with 36,637 arrivals.

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